FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION
”BELGOROD STATE NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY”
(“BSNRU”)
FACULTY OF THEOLOGY AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
NAMED AFTER MACARIUS (BULGAKOV) METROPOLITAN OF
MOSCOW AND KOLOMNA
SOCIAL WORK DEPARTMENT
SOCIAL PREVENTION OF CHILD ABUSE:
GOVERNMENTAL BODIES AND NGO COOPERATION
Master’s thesis of
Ibrahim Bah
Pursuing a master's degree in 39.04.02 Social work
Intramural form of study, group 87001607
Scientific supervisor
Candidate of Philosophy,
Associate Professor
K.Yu. Korolyova
Referee
Candidate of Sociology,
Associate Professor
E.V. Khovanova
BELGOROD 2018
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
3
1. METHODOLOGICAL BACKGROUD TO SOCIAL PREVENTION
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OF CHILD ABUSE RESEARCH
1.1. Origins, types and effects of child abuse
13
1.2. Theoretical approaches to Social Prevention of Child Abuse
23
2. CHILD ABUSE SOCIAL PREVENTION IN SIERRA LEONE:
38
STRUCTURAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
2.1. Child protection organizations in Sierra Leone: threats and
38
challenges
2.2. Model of Governmental Bodies and NGO Cooperation for child
64
abuse prevention
SUMMARY
80
BIBLIOGRAPHY
85
APPENDIXES
93
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INTRODUCTION
Actuality of the research problem. There is an increasing concern among
government of states, international no–governmental organizations, regional
organizations, child rights organizations, the civil society about the prevalence and
increasing growth of child abuse and neglect. That has prompted many researchers to
embark on projects that are geared towards finding solutions to end child abuse and
neglect.
Sierra Leone as a country is also faced with the challenge of child abuse. Stake
holders have been battling with the same challenge of child abuse for years now. For
instance, of all the cases reported to the Family Support Units (FSU) of the Sierra
Leone police, child abuse and neglect have been ranked as the highest. That shows
that special attention must be paid to the issue of child abuse.
The ministry of social welfare gender and children’s affairs (MSWGCA) is the
leading government organization that is responsible for protecting the interests of
children in the country. They have been doing this together with other government
agencies, inline ministries, non-governmental organizations (international and local),
and the civil society.
Together with the constitution of Sierra Leone, the Child Right Act of 2007, are
serving as the guiding principles in the country that are providing the legal framework
that are helping stakeholders in the performance of their duties. In line with the CRA,
the government of Sierra Leone through the Ministry of Social Welfare Gender and
Children’s Affairs and the Family Support Unit of the Sierra Leone Police is
committed to strengthening the capacity of child welfare workers so they can
effectively handle issues of child abuse in the best interest of both the children and
their parents or care givers.
This research is intended to identify the types and effects of child abuse that are
common in Sierra Leone. It will also identify key organizations that are working on
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child welfare issues in the country and their contributions in making sure that children
are protected. Significant also, is the fact that this project will pay special attention on
the theories and models of child abuse. Also, it will look at the perception of the
public on child abuse issues in Sierra Leone. Significant is that this research work will
make possible recommendations to overcome the challenge of child abuse.
Literature Review. Child abuse as a practice occurs when a parent/ guardian or
caretaker physically, emotionally, or sexually mistreats or neglects a child. Laws
regarding child abuse seek to protect children, while at the same time allowing parents
the right to raise and discipline their children as they see fit. Controversies over child
abuse laws can arise when parents or guardians feel that the government is interfering
in their private family life. In other to have a clear footing on how to examine child
abuse as a challenge we need to make a critical analysis of some of the most
significant literatures that have been published by previous writers of this topic.
The literatures we are about to review will not only serve as yard sticks for this
work but also a source of recourse material which this writer and subsequent
researchers can rely on.
“Child abuse has a lengthy history. Children have always been subject to abuse
by their parents or other adults, and for many centuries laws failed to protect them.
Children under English common law were considered the property of their fathers
until the late 1800s; American colonists in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
carried this tradition to the early years of the United States” (FindLaw 2013).
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines Child Abuse and neglect as
“all forms of physical and/or emotional - treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent
treatment, commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to
the child's health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship or
responsibility trust or power”.
According to a report published by The United Nations Children's Fund on the
issue of issue of child abuse particularly child circumcision, (UNICEF 2008), what is
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more inappropriate is the fact that the individuals carrying out the circumcision are
not trained and qualified health workers and the instruments they use to carry out the
procedure are not sterilized. The report also highlighted the prevalence of child rape
and the possibility of them contacting sexually transmitted diseases from adults. This
research report tried to identify genital mutilation as a form of child abuse and it also
enfercised on the health implication it has on the child.
Sierra Leone has been rated as one of the worst countries in the world to be
child. Children have suffered from different forms of abuses and this includes child
labour. Over the years the government of Sierra Leone in a bid to minimize the
challenge of child labour has developed the Act of parliament (Child Right Act 2007).
This act states that the minimum age for engagement of children in “light work” is 13
years. The Act described light work as that work that is not likely to be harmful to the
health of the child that is engaging in it. Also, it should not hinder the development of
the child or does not affect the child’s attendance at school. That is not the case in
Sierra Leone; instead many parents or care givers are forcing children to do jobs that
are meant for adults. These may include farming, carrying heavy loads, construction
and so on.
EDCI we are survivors Blog viewed the concept of child abuse form a
theoretical perspective (EDCI 2013). In a publication entitled, Research theories about
Child Abuse, released on their Blog on Thursday June 6, 2013. EDCI in their
publication viewed the causes of child abuse the Social Learning theory, Attachment
theory, the family system theory, ecological theory, Self – Efficiency Theory,
Resilience Theory. They believe that child abuses just don’t happen like that but
depending on the circumstance or environment one of the above theories has the
tendency of causing child abuse. The theories did not only explain what causes child
abuse they also highlighted why it has continued to be a challenge in the world.
Significantly, knowing the causes and severity of a research problem is part of
knowing the solution to the challenges the problem causes.
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Thomptone & Crispin in their work Mapping and analysis of child protection
system in Sierra Leone (Thomptone & Crispin, 2010, P32), explained about the
conventions that that Sierra Leone as a country has ratified. Among these conventions
are the convention on the Right of the Child (CRC) and also a signatory to the African
Charter on the Right and Welfare of the Child. It has also ratified the optional
protocol to the CRC to the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography
and the optional protocol to the Convention of the Right of the Child on the
involvement of children in armed conflicts. However, it has not ratified the
International Labor Organization (ILO) Minimum Age Convention 138 or ILO
Convention 182 on the worst forms of Child Labor. It has also signed, but not yet
ratified, the optional protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons,
especially women and children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against
Traditional Organized Crimes. According to Thomptone and Crispin the purpose of
this is to show commitment to the fight against child abuse in Sierra Leone. This work
has significantly contributed in raising awareness on issues relating to the rights of the
child and also, the consequences of the violation of those rights.
Another outstanding work that explained the importance of social partnership in
Preventing Child abuse and neglect is: the technical guide for policy, norms and
programmatic activities (Forton et. al, 2016). This work clearly spelled out the
organogram and responsibilities of stakeholders in preventing child abuse. It includes
the Ministry of Social Welfare Gender and Children’s Affairs, district councils,
chiefdom level, the Sierra Leone police (family support unit department), ministry of
education, ministry of health, the justice sector, religious organizations, non –
government organizations and so on. Forton and his colleagues believe that child
abuse is global challenge and that solution to tackling such challenge includes
effective partnership. Every sector or department in society should have their
respective responsivities to achieve a desirable result. Although this work failed to
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consider the parents or guardians and the child as integral part of the solution to
tackling child abuse, it created and is still creating a positive impact.
Belgorod scientists also considered child abuse issue. Volkova Olga in her
work “Child abuse in Russia as a course of social orphan hood”, informed us about
the fact that in spite of the existence of some form of child abuse in some parts of the
Russian society. The Russian people has continued to frown on perpetrators of child
abuse that includes parents, care givers, teachers and other adults who tramples into
the rights of children. The Russian society is well informed on the importance of
protecting children in other to allow them to develop healthy and vibrant so the future
generation will be productive (Volkova, O., 2013). She further explained the
existence of a modernized culture of child protection awareness into the fabric of the
Russian society. This she believes will help to minimize the existence of child abuse
and in turn create a better planform for children to have a better life and be productive
in the future. Kovalchuk O. V and Korolyova K. Y. discuss the issues of violence of
social institutions and family towards children in a range of publications. The authors
observe different theoretical approaches as a background for the causes of violence,
and also regard sociocultural factors of violence as a big challenge. The papers
present the actual tendencies of family violence as a social issue in the contemporary
Russian society and shows possible ways of solving the problem.
Object of the Research – social prevention of child abuse.
Subject of the research – cooperation of governmental bodies and nongovernmental organizations for social prevention of child abuse.
Aim of the Research: the overall aim is to establish social prevention of child
abuse by developing the pattern of Governmental Bodies and NGO cooperation
The objectives of this research are as follows:
to identify the immediate causes of child abuse.
to determine its effects on the community and children in particular.
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to reveal the problems of preventive social work and develop the model
of cooperation of governmental bodies and NGOs to tackle the challenge of child
abuse.
Hypotheses of the Research. The effects of child abuse maybe felt even long
after the wounds have been healed. Neglected children are more likely to experience
mental health problems and may find it difficult to cultivate good relationship in their
lives. Risk may be greater for children at various stages of development and may have
long-term effects.
When the composition of the household frequently changes there will be high
probability of abuse and neglect. Communities with high level of poverty rate tent of
have inferior physical and social infrastructure for the development of children.
The partnership of government and non – governmental organization may serve
as a move in the right direction to prevent child abuse.
Research Methodology. The research work based on wide range of theories.
Social learning theories predict that children who are victims of assault or who
witness assault tend to learn that violence is an acceptable way of life (resolving
problems and expressing emotions). Resilience theories help to explain how the
severity of the abuse and relation of the child with the supportive adult can determine
the child’s adjustment later in life. Socio ecological theories are macro in nature,
meaning they focus on the disintegration of the whole society as the major cause of
child abuse. Family system theories are micro in scope as the focus on the family
system. Parent-child interaction theories and psychological theories has contributed to
developing cooperation model.
This research work involves both quantitative and qualitative form of analyzing
data. This research aims to contribute to a better understanding of violence against
children in Sierra Leone. Based on the children’s perspective on violence, this
research intends to build upon existing data and analysis. It also aims to offer new
insights on the causes and consequences of violence by taking into account children
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and child’s right organizations understanding of violence. This research also sheds
light on children and organizations capacities to identify the causes of violence and to
propose solutions to prevent child abuse.
Empirical basis of the Research. This scientific research has been conducted
using empirical evidence. In a bid to expose, the seriousness of child abuse challenges
in Sierra Leone this work investigates five theoretical risk models predicting child
maltreatment potential. Significant also it analyzes the data conducted by two
different surveys (primary and secondary data). In the secondary data a total of 661
conversations throughout the country following a “purposive sampling” technique as
the study aimed to represent the cultural and social diversity with equal gender
representation has been analyzed (Search for Common Ground Research Report on
violence against children and youth in Sierra Leone, 2015). The purpose of this data is
to expose the nature of the challenge these organization are fighting against.
Furthermore, in order to test our theoretical hypothesis the poll was conducted.
The primary data were intended to target around 400 respondents from different parts
of the country. The interviewer focused his questions that will demand responses on
the perception of the Sierra Leonean public on of Child Protection system.
Scientific Novelty: the scientific novelty of the master thesis is to elaborate an
integral managerial model that could be useful to organizations working on domestic
violence issues in Sierra Leone for effective preventive practices.
Thesis statement. Child abuse has caused serious physical, psychological and
emotional problems for children in Sierra Leone. Although there are different types of
child abuse, but they all have similar destructive consequences on the children in their
further life and social environment.
Social partnership of government, non-governmental organizations and the civil
society is very vital in the fight against child abuse. Thus, there is the need to focus on
enhancing the social partnership in intervention effort. The relationship between
government, non – governmental organizations and the local societies in which they
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operate were described in cooperation model for child abuse prevention within three
levels hierarchy.
Practical significance of my research. Undertaking this research was very
relevant and timely. The evidence is due to the increasing recognition among
stakeholders (especially those working on child protection), that child abuse and
neglect has over the years become a major challenge. Based on that, this researcher
has undertaking this project of doing a thorough investigation on the topic.
This research will be relevant in the following ways:
the research will help stakeholders (government, NGOs, civil society) to
identify the root causes of child abuse. The fact that knowing the cause of the problem
is part of the solution to the problem, this work will help find solution to the problem
of child abuse in Sierra Leone;
this research will also help to raise the awareness of the society on the
issue of child abuse and its negative consequences on the society. It will help people
to see why they should mobilize against child abuse, eradicate or at least try to
minimize it;
this work will be relevant for policy makers, non-governmental
organizations, civil society organizations, because it will help them with knowledge
on how tackle child abuse issues;
this work will also serve as a resource material in the library, for other
students, policy makers, researchers, university lecturers and so on.
Work Structure. The thesis consist of two chapters with two paragraphs each
at 91 pages. This structure of the work contributes to revealing key concerns of child
abuse and developing practical recommendations on preventive work. The
bibliography contains 74 sources. The summary contains main conclusion and
recommendations.
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1. CHILD ABUSE UNDER CONSIDERATION OF SOCIAL WORK THEORY
1.1. Origin, types and effects of child abuse
For the whole of recorded history, there have been evidence to acts that can be
described as child abuse or neglect, but the professional enquiry into the topic is
generally considered to have begun in the 1960s. The 1962 publication of “the
Battered Child Syndrome” by Pediatric Psychiatrist C. Henry Kempe represent the era
that child abuse and maltreatment was recognized as a challenge in the world. Prior to
the publication of his article, injuries to children, even repeated bone fractures were
not considered as the result of internal trauma. Instead, doctors often looked for
undiagnosed bone diseases or explanations submitted by parents of accidental
mischief such as, falls or assaults by neighborhood bullies.
Since the beginning of the 20th century and until the 1970s, in some western
countries, children from ethnic minorities were forcefully separated from their parents
or caregivers and communities, either by the state or church authorities and forced to
“assimilate”. Such policies include the stolen generation (in Australia for Australian
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children) and the (Canadian Indian residential
school system (in Canada for first nation, Metis and Inuit), with such children often
suffering from severe abuse and neglect.
Definition of what constitutes child abuse vary across professionals, and other
sectors of society which deals with issues, such as child protection agencies, legal
and medical communities, public health officials, researchers, practitioners and child
advocates. The term, abuse and maltreatment are often used interchangeably. Child
maltreatment can be an umbrella term for all forms of child abuse and child neglect.
Since members of various fields tend to use their own definitions, communication
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across disciplines can be limited, hampering efforts to identify, assess, track, treat and
prevent child abuse. [23]
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines Child Abuse and neglect as "all
forms of physical and/or emotional - treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent
treatment, commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to
the child's health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship or
responsibility trust or power".[70]
More than half the world's children are at risk of poverty, conflict and
discrimination against girls, according to a report by Save the Children. The charity's
second End of Childhood index says more than 1.2 billion children face these threats,
with 153 million facing all four. While the global situation has improved compared
with the previous years, the charity says progress is not fast enough. According to
save the children these children are at risk of being robbed of their childhoods and
future potential. [72]
Child abuse can be categorized into four different types. They are: physical
abuse, neglect, psychological abuse and sexual abuse.
Figure 1: Types of child abuse
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Physical abuse: Physical abuse can be defined as any intentional act causing
injury or trauma to another person or animal by way of bodily contact. Although
adults can also be victims, as in cases of domestic violence or workplace aggression
but in most cases, children are the most common victims of physical abuse. Most
times child physical abuse is done under the guise of discipline. Most parents,
caregivers or school teachers see corporal punishment as a way of controlling children
to behave well. They fail to realize that, instead the children learn how to avoid being
hit but not to behave well and grow as good citizens. The effects of physical abuse
includes, the mistreatment of a child that causes physical injury, inflict pain, bruises,
burns, impairment or endangerment. The effects of physical abuse may last for life
time, and can include brain damage and vision and hearing loss resulting to disability.
Child physical abuse may also lead to severe emotional behavior problems in
children. [69] In cases where abuse may course brain injury it can result to cognitive
delays that could adversely affect the child’s growing brain and his or her quality of
life throughout her experience. Immediate effects can also result to pain and medical
problems and in severe cases, even death. The effects of child abuse are felt even long
after the wounds have been healed. The long term effects of physical above include
psychological distress later in life and inferiority complex towards peers.
Neglect: Child neglect is defined as a type of maltreatment related to the failure
to provide needed, age-appropriate care. Unlike physical and sexual abuse, neglect is
usually typified by an ongoing pattern of inadequate care and is commonly practiced
by individuals in close contact with the child (parents or guardians). Child neglect is
divided into seven groups including: refusal of health care; delay in health care;
abandonment or desertion; expulsion or blatant refusal to care for the child; custody
related issues, such as repeatedly leaving a child with others; inadequate supervision;
and other physical neglect such as inadequate nutrition. [25] Neglect can be really
difficult to identify, making it hard for professionals to take early actions to protect
the child. Children who have been neglected are more likely to experience mental
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health problems including depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. Also, the
lack of love and care from their parents or care givers they may find it difficult to
maintain healthy relationships later in their lives, including their own children. [2]
Neglected child may also attempt to run away from home, abuse drugs or alcohol or
involve in dangerous relationships. This practice has course many children to run
away from their homes the world over. In Freetown (Sierra Leone’s capital) alone,
there are more than 1500 street children. Like many of their colleagues in other parts
of the world, they are exposed to drugs, prostitution, being recruited into gang groups,
trafficking and so on.
Psychological Abuse: Psychological abuse of a child is a pattern of intentional
verbal or behavioral actions or lack of actions that convey to a child the message that
he or she is worthless, flawed, unloved, unwanted, endangered, or only of value to
meet someone else's needs. Withholding emotional support, isolation, or terrorizing a
child are forms of psychological abuse. Domestic violence that is witnessed by a child
is also considered a form of psychological abuse. This is decided into: close
confinement (which is a restriction of movement such as binding or tying); and verbal
assault, which includes habitual patterns of belittling, denigrating or other forms of
rejecting treatment, and other abuse which is overtly punitive, exploitative or abusive.
It may also include allowing children to witness the physical or emotional abuse of
another child, or allowing them to use illegal drugs.
The effect of psychological abuse can result to children being fearful of parents
or care givers. Also they may seem emotionally immature when compared to their
peers. They exhibit sudden changes in behavior, such as doing poorly in school.
Psychological abuse can also lead to insomnia, excessive sleepiness, and sleep apnea.
[42]
During the civil war in Sierra Leone children were recruited forcefully into
rebel groups. They were put on drugs so they can’t have sympathy for people. These
child soldiers were more dangerous than the matured ones. Some of them grew up in
15
the jungle to become dangerous rebel commanders that were very dangerous and
difficult to handle.
Most of them didn’t even know what they were fighting for. They were just
victims of circumstance. They were just taken away from their families; brain washed
and put on drugs which make them see pleasure in causing atrocities (killing, burning
houses and raping women and girls). It took Sierra Leone many years after the war to
rehabilitate and re-integrate those children into society.
Apart from experiencing Post- traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), children and
teens that have gone through psychological trauma often have other types of
problems. Even though, much of what we know about the effects of trauma on
children comes from the research on child sexual abuse. This research shows that
sexually abused children often have problems with:
fear, worry, sadness, anger, feeling alone and apart from others, feeling
as if people are looking down on them, low self-worth, and not being able to trust
others
behaviors such as aggression, out-of-place sexual behavior, self-harm,
and abuse of drugs or alcohol are possible consequences.
Sexual abuse: Sexual abuse, also referred to as molestation, is usually referred
to as undesired sexual behavior (advance) by one person upon another. It is often
perpetrated using force or by taking advantage of another. When force is immediate,
of short duration, or infrequent, it is called sexual assault. The offender is referred to
as a sexual perpetrator. The term also covers any behavior by an adult or older
adolescent towards a child to stimulate any of the involved sexually.
The use of a child or other individuals younger than the age of consent, for
sexual stimulation is referred to as child sexual abuse or statutory rape. These include:
intrusion, which means evidence of actual penile penetration; molestation, which
includes genital contact without intrusion; and other sexual abuse which includes acts
such as folding or inappropriate supervision of a child's sexual activities. [68]
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The effects of child sexual abuse on the victims may include guilt and selfblame, flash backs, nightmares, insomnia, fear of the objects associated with the abuse
(including objects, smell, places, doctor’s visit etc.) , self-esteem difficulties, sexual
dysfunction, chronic pain, addiction, self-injury, suicidal ideation, somatic
complaints, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and physical injury to the child
among other problems. Children who are victims of sexual abuse are at high risk of
sexually transmitted infections due to their immature system and high potential for
mucosal tear during forced sexual contact. The practice of female genital mutilation
can also be attributed to sexual abuse. It is a common practice in Sierra Leone for
young girls to be circumcised without their consent. What is more inappropriate is
that the individuals carrying out the circumcision are not trained and qualified health
workers and the instruments they use to carry out the activities are not sterilized.
Apart from the four types of child abuse mentioned above, many children in the
world we live also suffer from other forms of abuse which have caused negative
impacts on the development of not only children but also the world as a global
community. These abuses are as follows:
Child labor: this includes the engagement of children in unlawful work.
According to the Child Right Act 2007 of Sierra Leone, no individual or organization
(employer) should employ a child below the age of 15 years. Child labor can also be
referred to as the labor undertaken by children who are very young to do the kind of
job they are forced to do. This may also have the tendency to deprive the child of
primary education. Worth noting also, is the fact that the Child Right Act 2007, states
that the minimum age for engagement of children in “light work” is 13 years. The Act
described light work as that work that is not likely to be harmful to the health of the
child that is engaging in it. Also, it should not hinder the development of the child or
does not affect the child’s attendance at school. That is not the case in Sierra Leone;
instead many parents or care givers are forcing children to do jobs that are meant for
17
adults. These may include farming, carrying of heavy loads for the purpose of
construction work and so on. [11]
Child trafficking: this is referred to as the unlawful movement of a child from
one location to another by an adult for the purpose of exploitation. The indicators of
child trafficking include but not limited to involvement in prostitution, exposure to
forced labor (may be used as domestic servants, street trading, stone breaking and so
on). Child adoption both national and international has negative impacts in Sierra
Leone. From the national perspective, some people in the capital city or provincial
centers take their siblings in the villages with the promise on giving them quality
education instead engage them as sources of income (street trading, prostitution). In
the international perspective, trafficking of children from Sierra Leone to other
countries started during the civil war in the late 1990s, when some local nongovernmental organizations took child for adoption abroad. The whereabouts of those
children are not known until now. The affected parents have voiced their concerns to
the authorities concerned but they are yet to get positive response.
UNICEF is working with development partners (governments and Nongovernmental organizations) in a bid to prevent, protect, and prosecute and support
evidence based research to help improve adequate interventions.[35] UNICEF also
works with different societies to change the norms and practices that encourage
children’s vulnerabilities to trafficking.[54]
Harmful Traditional Practices: this is another form of child abuse that is
presently affecting the development of children in Sierra Leone. This includes the
early/ forced marriage of children. According to the Child Right Act 2007 of Sierra
Leone, the legal age of marriage is 18 years, but this is not the case in many parts of
the country. The reason for this challenge can be attributed to cultural clash. In most
parts of the rural areas where culture plays a very significant role in the lives and
living patterns of the people they tend to conduct forced marriages without the
consent of the teenager involved.[63]
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Also worth noting, is the early and forced initiation of children into “secret
societies”, like match making, secret societies are part and parcel of the living pattern
of the people of Sierra Leone. Although it is an accepted cultural practice it is also
regarded as abusive when children are forced into joining them, more especially if the
child is under 18 years and or it affects his or her educational progress.
Child to Child abuse: for many people as soon as they hear child abuse what
comes into their mind is an abuse by an adult. This is not always the case sometimes
an older child can abuse a younger child. This form of child abuse is common
worldwide. This form of abuse can be categorized into sexual and bulling. Bulling
may can include hitting, kicking, theft, spreading rumors, names calling, tribal
comments and so an. These practices are more common in schools and playgrounds
when parents or an adult is not around to protect younger children.
Authority abuse: in Sierra Leone most people in authority who are supposed to
have the moral right to protect the dignity and ensure rights of children are recognized
tent to flout the rules by misusing their responsibilities of protecting children to
abusing them. However, there are instances of incidents where in school teachers,
police officers (FSU), religious leaders, care givers, humanitarian agency workers
who took advantage of their positions in society by abusing and exploiting children.
For instance, it is common to see a school teacher impregnating a school girl.
Today Child abuse is more common than many people care to believe. Millions
of Children experience abuse each year and for the past 10 years there has been
growing attention in regards to this major issue affecting so many children. In Sierra
Leone more than 1 million reports of child abuse are made each year which involve
almost 2 million children, every ten seconds a report is made about a child being
abused, and hundreds more die every year as a result of abuse. Others are being
horribly mistreated every day by adults who are supposed to protect, love and care for
them. Along with physical damage there are also equally devastating emotional
wounds created by harsh words or neglect.
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Figure 2: Sierra Leone child protection indicator
Child Labor, CM- Child Marriage,
FGM- Female Genital Mutilation,
DV- (Domestic Violence/Physical Abuse)
Looking at the prevalence of child labor, child marriage, physical abuse and
female genital mutilation more especially in the rural areas of the country, girls are
believed to be more vulnerable to abuse than boys. Although 18 years is legal age for
marriage in Sierra Leone, 58% of girls are married before then, and most of these
marriages are compromised by parents or care givers because of financial or material
benefit. Child labor is also a social security challenge with 31% of children being
victims. Boys constitute 33% of this figure and girls 30%; this might be attributed to
the fact that boys can do more physical jobs than girls. Domestic violence against
girls by dear parents/guardians or close relatives is at 85%.
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Female genital mutilation (FGM) is also a widespread practice affecting 71% of
girls. This practice has some cultural acceptance and almost all the circumcisions are
done during initiation ceremonies into secret societies. The above graph has
demonstrated that violence (physical abuse 85%) and FGM (71%) are the biggest
challenges faced by children in Sierra Leone.
In the first section of this chapter we looked at the background of child abuse as
a subject of research. The background highlighted the nature of the problem. Another
main focus is explaining the origin, types and effects of child abuse. Child abuse can
be categorized into four different types. They are: physical abuse, neglect,
psychological abuse and sexual abuse. It also went further to explain the effects of
these types of abuse on society in general and the child particular.
In the following sub topic we will looking at different theories of child abuse
and their effects on the types of abuses we studied in this chapter.
1.2. THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO SOCIAL PREVENTION OF CHILD
ABUSE
Over the years there have been several publications on child abuse, its causes
and consequences on both the child and the society. In trying to explain their views on
the challenge these writers has postulated different theories which they believe are the
reasons behind the prevalence of child abuse. These theories are like a two edged
sword, that is to say they have both advantages and dis advantages. Each theory first
tried to explain the positive impact of its views and then went further to give
criticisms (negative views) that have been levied on it. For the purpose of this work
we will analyze the views of the followings theories on child abuse: social leaning,
Attachment, family system, Ecological, self–Efficiency, Resilience and Psychological
theories.[29] And the end of this section we are expected to be able to see how each
21
theory complement each other in identifying the causes, effects and prevention of
child abuse in our societies.
social
leaning
theories
Psychologic
al theories
Attachment
Theories
Theories of
Child Abuse
Family
system
theories
Selfefficiency
theories
Ecological
theories
Figure 3: Theories of child abuse prevention
The Social Learning Theories:
These theories explain that behavior is learned through two different methods.
We (individuals) either learn by being rewarded for our actions (practical learning) or
through observing or copying the actions of those around us (modeling). Some
theorists believe that children learn to be aggressive from these two methods and in
most cases continue these abusive behaviors for the rest of the lives. The pattern of
learned aggression is referred to as the "Cycle of Violence" or the intergenerational
transmission of violence. The circle of violence is questioned by some researchers
pointing to findings that only 20 - 30% of child abuse and neglect victims became
involved in abusive and criminal behavior. They believe that interventions based on
22
social learning theory have the purpose of teaching both parents and child appropriate
relationship skills within the family.
Any discussion of theory must begin with the observation that humans are
social animals and that our way of living is determined more by culture and
socialization than by instincts. Viewing the social cultural nature, of human beings it
should come as no surprise that social learning theory has over the years emerged as a
dominant perspective in the study of deviant behavior. Significantly, it is also
important in the study of child maltreatment.
Social learning begins with process, in which a person learns social and
cognitive behaviors by simply observing and imitating others. When children are
exposed to violence, they are exposed to a set of norms and rationalizations that
justify violence and violent behaviors. They are also deprived of the opportunity to
learn appropriate and nurturing forms of adult-child interaction. Children in most
cases develop the idea that violence is an acceptable way, or perhaps even the
acceptable manner, of resolving family conflict and expressing emotions and feelings.
In addition, learning takes place through observation of people’s behaviors or through
rewards and punishment dispensed to the learner. As applied particularly to the
concept of child maltreatment, observing or experiencing violence (e.g., father hits
child for putting up bad behavior) and reinforcement of violence within a social
context (i.e., child shuts up) teaches children that violence is acceptable. Violence is
reinforced as a way of getting what one wants. [20]
A large number of studies have successfully linked childhood victimization to
violence in adulthood. Although the intergenerational pattern has not been proven to
be perfect, it is clear that adults with abusive childhood histories are more likely to
abuse their own children. Evidence also suggests that children who witness abuse
(e.g., between parents) but who do not experience abuse directly may learn violent
interpersonal interaction life styles. Through witnessing negative interactions,
children learn inappropriate or violent methods of expressing anger, reacting to stress,
23
and coping with conflict. Studies have consistently demonstrated that adults who
abuse children are more likely to have come from homes characterized by
considerable marital discord and violence and to a limited degree, the intergeneration
pattern.
Several studies have also found frequent reports of sexual abuse against
another family member in offenders’ families of origin, and others have noted a
relationship between sexual abuse perpetration and high rates of physical abuse in the
backgrounds of offenders.
While it is difficult to question the intergenerational patterns, many researchers
found out that there are many methodological challenges with the social learning
research theory. First, there has been an overreliance on self-report and retrospective
data. Retrospective reports are problematic because they depend on the memories and
perceptions of violent adults concerning their childhood experiences. Second, there
has been a general lack of comparison groups of nonviolent adults also asked to
provide retrospective reports. Also worth noting is that, childhood maltreatment is
often perceived as the cause of adult perpetration, and this conclusion is most often
challenged as not scientifically proven. Childhood abuse is neither a necessary nor
sufficient cause of adult violence. At best, the data suggest that children who were
abused (or who witnessed abuse) are more likely to be abusive adults. [47]
In spite of the above postulation made by different researchers this writer is of
the view that it is not always like that because, they are not predetermined to be
abusive. I have reviewed the empirical literature on this question and concluded that
the rate of intergenerational transmission is approximately low (30%) which means
that 70% of those who were abused as children do not go on to become abusive
adults. Clearly, the majority of abused children do not grow up to be abusive adults.
Attachment or parent-child interaction theories:
Attachments theorists believe that humans develop behavior as a result of how
their caregivers nurture them. They believe that the type of bond that develops
24
between the child and caregivers affects the child's future relationships. They
developed the following types of bonding:
- Secure and Insecure: secure attachment pattern develop from a consistent and
nurturing caregiver whereas insecure attachments are as a result of inconsistent
emotionally neglectful and/or abuse care giving.
- Preoccupied: children with preoccupied attachment have the tendency of
moving easily between their caregiver and stranger when looking for comfort but will
sometimes resist the comfort they get.
- Dismissive: Children who experience dismissive attachments show distrust of
the caregiver and have the inability to be comforted because they are not treated well
by the caregiver.
- Fearful: This attachment pattern is characterized by erratic behavior or the
child unable to recognize which behavior gain favorable attention from the caregiver.
This may happen as a result of the repeated negative reaction of the caregiver towards
the child. Many researchers subscribe to the fact that almost all abused children
exhibit insecure attachment. [58]
Parent-child interaction theories suggest that difficult child behaviors interact
with specific parental behaviors to result in child maltreatment. That is, it is the
behavior of both parent and child, rather than the behavior of either alone, that
promotes violence. Some parents may lack the skills to manage children who are
annoying, argumentative, defiant, or vindictive, for example, and this may lead to
abusive interactions. Also, in other cases the attitude of the child may trigger violent
response from the parent or guardian.
Many researches have suggested that these difficult behavioral patterns affect
the parent-child relation during the early years of the abused child. Attachment is a
significant enduring emotional bond between the parents and the child that develops
progressively during the early years of an infant’s life while the infant is completely
dependent on his or her caregiver for survival and protection. This bond serves an
25
important function for a healthy development.[45] Through this caretaker-child
relationship, the child develops a sense of trust, love and security, a sense of self, and
an ability to learn and explore and surrounding. Failure to form a secured sense of
attachment early in life may contribute to difficulties in adulthood, such as the
inability to cultivate close personal relationships.
For instance, envision a child who is born with a particular characteristic such
as a difficult temperament or a physical disability. Attachment theory suggests that
these challenges have the tendency to interfere with the development of a secure
attachment between the parent and child in question. This vulnerability may in turn
lead to further difficult child behaviors and increased challenges for the parent. The
problems may escalate and result in physical abuse when the challenges exceed the
parent’s tolerance or capability threshold. Several studies have found that, compared
with parents who don’t maltreat their children, maltreating parents more frequently
have insecure attachments to their infants. The cause of this insecure attachment is
because of the repeated occurrence of abuse. In addition, findings from several studies
support a theory of negative escalation in abusive parent-child relationship.
It is important to note that while the child’s behavior is relevant to abuse, the
behavior of a child should never be accepted as an excuse for an adult’s violent
behavior. The fact that the adult has the ability to reason objectively than the child it
is his or her responsibility ignore the any negatively attitude of the child. The adult
also has alternative ways to train that child, and abusing the child must not be one of
those options. When an adult inflicts injury on a child, he or she is responsible for that
behavior. Children cannot be held responsible for their own victimization. Legal
statutes governing adult behavior, furthermore, do not grant adults the right to inflict
physical injury on children who are difficult. In addition, it is important to remember
that although characteristics of the child are important, they are only one factor among
many that contribute to child maltreatment. Attachment theories further enfercised the
fact that when parents pay proper attention to the child during the first five years of
26
development, can help the child grow happy, secure and confident. The child’s brain
will grow accordingly at each stage of growth. [6]
The family system theories: This theory was developed in the 1950s by Dr.
Bowen from the idea of a general theory that looked at different types of systems.
Family system theorists focus mainly on the family. It is a process of identifying
problems of child abuse as a result of dysfunctional relationship among family
members. For instance, in cases of incest where the father is the perpetrator the
deliberate refusal of the mother to make timely intervention may appear to be tacit
approval. This they believe will serve as a contributing factor of repeated abuse. [51]
Family system theorists believe that state institutions alone cannot solve the problem
of child abuse, they should therefore, work as a larger network, with other systems in
the society which includes parents, that functions cooperatively and supportively as a
family with their children. The family’s involvement in child abuse prevention is
complex that is true because of the following contradictions: as much as parents can
play a crucial role in working towards solutions to the problem, they can also in some
cases be the source of the problem.[46] Their major are further divided into: patterns,
rules, boundaries, roles and equilibrium. However, some critics are concerned about
the failure of this theory to recognize the influence of power and society on human
behavior.
Socio-ecological theories: this theory holds that abuse and neglect of children
in most cases is as a result of multiple factors. These are divided into four systems:
the individual, family, community, and culture. For individuals and families involved
in child abuse and neglect, the degree of influence may dramatically differ. For
example, a child who has been sexually abused may be committed to school, involved
with peers but disassociated with the family. In another family, a sexually abused
child may be disconnected from the community and isolated from peers. So if, child
abuse is the result of multiple factors from various systems, then there is the need to
27
implore different strategies to address and implement effective programs to address
each factor and system.
Social ecology theory is macro in scope, placed deviance in the breakdown of
environmental controls. Sociologists who study crime and deviance sometimes
referred to this tradition of thought as the Chicago School, because the original
research was conducted by sociologists at the University of Chicago during the 1920s.
For sociologists, social ecology theory suggests that when there is a breakdown in a
social system the community suffers. As results of this all residents are obliged to
share responsibilities, entire neighborhoods can become prone to deviance. In many
poor, inner-city neighborhoods, for example, there is geographic instability,
heterogeneity of residents, and a breakdown of churches and other communitybuilding institutions. Residents of these neighborhoods may have few emotional
attachments to one another and may care little about the community in which they
live. When the residents lose their links to one another and to their community, they
also lose the ability to monitor (i.e., sanction) the behaviors of others. This in turn
may lead to the breakdown of the whole system.[52]This system in question is
supposed to be regularly interacting or interdependent group of people forming an
integrated whole surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its
structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning.
From this perspective, child maltreatment is a breakdown in the social bonds
that tie people to society’s expectations. One such theory is Travis Hirschi’s (1969)
social bonding theory. Social bonding theory begins with the assumption that humans
by nature are inherently motivated to commit deviant acts. Therefore, while most
theories of child maltreatment attempt to answer the question “Why do adults abuse
children?” social bonding theory turns this question on its head: Given the cultural
and structural factors that encourage family violence, why don’t adults abuse
children? That is, what social forces prevent most adults from abusing children?
According to Hirschi’s theory, people refrain from committing deviant acts when
28
strong social bonds give them a stake in conformity. Three components of the social
bond are most relevant to child maltreatment discussions: Commitment refers to the
degree to which the individual is invested in conventional activities and conventional
success. People with a lot to lose (e.g., home, family, career, and standing in the
community) have a tremendous stake in conformity and are less likely to abuse
children because of what they have at stake. Attachment refers to the bonds people
feel with significant others in positions similar to theirs. Attachments create strong
bonds to society because we do not want to disappoint people who are important to
us. People with few significant attachments are freer to commit deviant acts by virtue
of their position. A significant, belief is the degree to which one feels the laws on
child abuse are justified and right. There is variation, for example, in the degree to
which some people believe hitting children is wrong. There are also people who
believe that children are their property and that society has no right to tell them what
they can or cannot do to their child. They believe they have the right to train their
children how they want them to be. Obviously, this belief results in an increased
probability of deviant behavior. We see support for these perspectives in research,
which suggests that social isolation (including a lack of extended family or peer
support networks) is correlated with child maltreatment. This understanding has been
categorized within two models: the psychodynamic and sociological models. More
recently, both views have been incorporated in a more comprehensive ‘ecological’
theory. This presents child abuse as occurring within the context of the child's
environment at different, groups. The ecological paradigm is currently the most
comprehensive model we have for understanding child abuse, providing a systematic
framework in which to conduct both research and child protection practice.[57]
Worth noting is that, the challenge of strain and frustration are not only limited
to the lower classes. Any incident that is associated with levels of stress within
families might contribute to child abuse and neglect. Ecological theorists found that
physical abuse is generally associated with large numbers of stressful life events as
29
well as stress associated with parenting. Stressful situations include the presence of a
new baby in the family, illness, death of a family member, poor housing conditions,
and larger-than-average family size. Other situational variables associated with
physical abuse include high levels of stress in the family from work-related problems
and pressures, marital discord, conflicts regarding a child’s school performance,
illness, and a crying or fussy child.
Compared with non-abusive parents, abusive parents have relatively fewer
contacts with peer networks as well as with immediate family and other relatives.
Ecological theorists evaluated social support networks both within and outside the
family in terms of the presence of family social support, child-rearing help, and the
size of any existing support networks. They found that abusive mothers reported less
family social support, less child-rearing help from peers and professionals, and
smaller peer networks than no abusive mothers. Children who live in communities or
societies with low social capital are believed to be at greater risk for child abuse and
neglect than children who live in communities with well-developed social networks
and community connections. Drawing from the above analysis we can make an
informed conclusion that the origins of abuse can be organized into a framework of
four principal systems: the child, the family, the community, and the society.[60]
The effects of social ecological risk factors of child abuse are, of course,
multiple. No single risk factor is likely to explain much. Yet much of the research on
this model has focused on single risk factors, thus the idea of particularly limiting the
hypothetical power of the model. These 10 risk factors included items such as
education for pregnant teens, family size, legal marital age, maternal age, and
maternal history of abuse, socioeconomic status, maternal depression, and low selfesteem were identified as major risk factors.
Self – Efficiency Theory: Historically, child abuse and neglect research and
interventions were grounded in the belief that inevitably the victim is damage by
trauma. However, factors such as severity of a particular type of abuse, age of the
30
victim, and his or her relationship to the perpetrator can predict later adjustment.
Furthermore, factors such as support, parental warmth, and the victim’s healthy
relationship with a supportive adult can influence the child’s healthy development and
avoidance of delinquent behavior.
This theory focuses on how personal characteristics of the child and especially
the parents, influences family functioning. Self-efficiency theory looks at how a
parent’s expectation of effectiveness impacts their motivation and behavior. An
individual’s expectations dictate if they will start and continue actions to achieve a
goal. This theory help bridge a gap between knowledge and behavior. This is
apparently when parents know they should not hit their children but are unable to seek
out method to achieve this goal. Self- efficacy theory further states that this
knowledge/behavior gap is due to the parents’ belief that they cannot behave in a
manner that would stop them from abusing their children.[7] Many theorists criticized
this theory as being limited because; it does not incorporate a development
perspective. The theorists of self- efficiency believe that society has the potential of
moving from the primitive state to the modern stage.
Psychological theories:
Numerous psychological theories of abuse have been developed over the past
few decades. Psychological theories focus on explaining human thought and behavior
through different developmental, cognitive, social, behavioral, or affective process.
The vast majority of psychological theories of child abuse focus on psychological
abuse, adult male-perpetrated rape and child molestation, physical abuse although a
small number focus on subcategories of offences (e.g., sexual sadism or femaleperpetrated abuse).
There are no psychological theories available to exclusively explain child
abuse, although many. Psychological theories provide a conceptual model of the
psychological problems facilitating child abuse. This makes such theories significant
31
for development or formulation of treatment interventions in order to achieve
effective rehabilitation success.
Classifying Psychological Theories Psychological theories of child abuse vary
according to how much they generally recognize or incorporate other theoretical
stances (e.g., biological or societal factors). Psychologists have usefully divided
theories of sexual offending into three categories: single factor, multi factor, and
micro level. According to them Single factor psychological theories examine only a
single form of empirically associated theories with sexual violence/abuse (e.g.,
intimacy deficits). Multi factor psychological theories combine various theoretical
explanations into wide range of factors and causal relationships associated with child
abuse. Although such accounts focus on psychological factors, they will also
generally include some non-psychological clarifications as well (e.g., biological).
Micro level psychological theories give premium to series of cognitive, affective,
behavioral, and contextual events that result in a single stage of child abuse. They are
generally descriptive explanations developed from testimonies given by victims of
abuse on their experiences. Because micro level theories are concerned more on how
the abuse occurs rather than why it occurs they are believed to be much less prevalent
than single or multi factor theories. For psychological theorists they believe that these
levels are like two branches of the same root.[1] However, they focus more on the
psychological aspect of the abuse.
Examples of Psychological Theory Applied to Sexual Violence/Abuse. Single
and multi-factor psychological explanations of male perpetrated rape and child
molestation are well established. Several researches have showed that factors such as
lack of intimacy, inappropriate sexual interests, emotional control, and offence
supportive thinking are all psychological components associated with the commitment
of sexual assault against adult or children. Numerous psychological theories describe
the relations of these factors alongside non-psychological mechanisms to varying
degrees of complexity in the facilitation of sexual abuse. The most recent
32
psychological theory that was developed to particularly explain child molestation is
ward and Siegert’s Pathways Model. This theory is a combination of the positive
aspects of previous theories into a concept designed to describe five specific
dimensions to abuse by complex interactions between learning, biological, and
cultural factors. In other words, five subtypes of child molester are described and each
of them is predicted to have its own unique approach and prominence of single
psychological factors or vulnerabilities. These subtypes are traditionally known to be
the psychological factor predicted to be most dysfunctional for that subtype (i.e.,
emotional regulation, sexual scripts, intimacy, antisocial thinking, and multiple
dysfunctions). [71] So, for example, the intimacy subtype refers to individuals whose
most prominent psychological vulnerability motivating their sexual offending against
children is a lack of intimacy with adults and associated loneliness. Multiple
dysfunction perpetrators, on the other hand, refer to child molesters who hold
problems on all four psychological factors. The reasons why men have the tendency
of rape is predicted to the fact that they are naturally programed to prefer impersonal
sex, which is likely to be optimized by coercive sex. With regards to the factors that
cause rape, it is predicted that a confluence of risk factors motivate, disinhibit, and
provide the general context for sexual offending (e.g., hostile masculinity, antisocial
personality). Such men may also have tendency to be more hostile towards women
than men who are not sexually violent.[28] Numerous other theories of sexual
violence and abuse are available but they are not developed specifically to explain
rape and instead focus on both rape and child sexual assault. During adolescence, it is
predicted that as hormonal activity increases so too do aggressive impulses. While the
majority of males are predicted to successfully control and suppress such impulses,
psychological vulnerabilities created via numerous avenues (e.g., biological,
developmental) are predicted to interact with contextual factors (e.g., intoxication,
sexual arousal) and impair normal inhibition processes heightening the likelihood of
sexual aggression. Psychological Theory Applied to Subsystems of sexual Abuse
33
While male perpetrated rape and child molestation are associated with different
psychological theories, very little information is available to explain particular
categories of sexual violence or abuse. However, in other areas such as teenage sexual
abuse, it is believed that existing theories are not sufficient to explain the gender
differences of female perpetrators. The advantages and challenges of Psychological
theories provide a perfect approach of the range of cognitive, social, developmental,
and behavioral factors associated with sexual violence and abuse at the individual
level. [27] As such they enable professionals working with perpetrators of sexual
violence/abuse to pinpoint the range of psychological factors that facilitate sexual
offences, and highlight those psychological factors that require treatment
interventions. A significant challenge faced by such theories, however, is that
psychological factors tend to be emphasized over and above societal or biological
mechanisms. However, even the most controversial psychological theories at least
give premium to these factors to a very large extent.
These different theories mentioned above can serve as yard sticks in helping
policy makers, governments of states, international non-governmental organizations,
researchers and child right agencies in identifying the root causes of child abuse.
Intellectuals and researchers have come to the conclusion that the root causes child
abuse is not the result of human nature or evil people. They believe that its root lie in
the very nature of the family itself. [26]
It is no hidden secret that the youths of today are the future generation. For the
sake of peaceful world order, continuity and development, governments of States
must partner with international nongovernmental organizations, civil societies,
families, parents and caregivers in making the world a better place for children.
Creating a friendly and peaceful environment for children will not only make them
grow healthy and happy but also allow them to realize their potentials.
Chapter summary
34
There are several social structures and cultural pointers to child abuse that serve
as yard sticks to help us understand why child abuse continues to exist in our
respective societies. Cultural practices set the stage for child abuse, especially
negative cultural forces that may allow or promote negative parent- child interaction.
In many African societies for instance, corporal punishment is viewed as an accepted
way to train children. Worth noting also, are the effects of cultural practices like
FGM, early marriage, accepted parental aggression plays in these societies that were
highlighted in this chapter. Structural characteristics of the social system may also
contribute to child abuse. Some negative family practices like giving absolute power
to parents (power imbalance); make children vulnerable targets of abuse. Also, family
privacy of hiding incidents of violence from the rest of society encourages the
reoccurrence of abuse. In most cases incidents are settled in house without involving
the relevance authorities.
Social learning theories predict that children who are victims of assault or who
witness assault tend to learn that violence is an acceptable way of life (resolving
problems and expressing emotions). Resilience theories explain how the severity of
the abuse and relation of the child with the supportive adult can determine the child’s
adjustment later in life. Socio ecological theories are macro in nature, meaning they
focus on the disintegration of the whole society as the major cause of child abuse.
Family system theories are micro in scope as the focus on the family system. For
them dysfunctional relationship among family member may encourage child abuse.
Family system theory has suffered a lot of criticism over the years for being
ineffective. Finally, psychological theories focus on the human thought and behavior.
This they went on to categorize as developmental, cognitive, social behavior or
effective process.
In order to effectively implement the theories of child abuse prevention that we
discussed in this chapter, society needs a very viable social structure that encourages
partnership of governmental organizations and non- governmental organization. In the
35
next chapter we will look into the partnership and activities of those organizations and
the impacts they have made in the child protection system of Sierra Leone.
36
2. CHILD ABUSE SOCIAL PREVENTION IN SIERRA LEONE: STRUCTURAL
AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
2.1. Child protection organizations in Sierra Leone: threats and challenges
This section will examine the roles of inline ministries, government
departments, non-governmental organizations, religious organizations working on
child protection in Sierra Leone. We will also examine existing national laws and
policies formulated to tackle the challenge of child abuse as well as regional and
international child protection institutions that Sierra Leone is party to. An overview of
the Child Right Act of 2007 will be included.
As compliment to the official
legislation in place, traditional religious authorities continue to play an important role
in the fight against child abuse.
As the official recognized legislation that is formulated to promote child right
and social protection in Sierra Leone the 2007 Child Right Act of Sierra Leone,
defines a child as any person under the age of 18 years. Also, included in in the Child
Right Act is a statement of children’s welfare and provides solutions on how to handle
children in conflict of the law as well as children in need of protection. The CRA also
amended the old and outdated laws in other to move with the trend of changing global
situation. These include; the Corporal Punishment Act (repealed), the Prevention of
Cruelty to Children Act and Young Persons Act.
In other to overcome the challenges of child abuse and neglect and enhance
social security for children, the government of Sierra Leone has ratified the
convention on the Right of the Child (CRC) and also a signatory to the African
Charter on the Right and Welfare of the Child. It has also ratified the optional
protocol to the CRC to the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography
and the optional protocol to the Convention of the Right of the Child on the
37
involvement of children in armed conflicts. [44] However, it has not ratified the
International Labor Organization (ILO) Minimum Age Convention 138 or ILO
Convention 182 on the worst forms of Child Labor. It has also signed, but not yet
ratified, the optional protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons,
especially women and children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against
Traditional Organized Crimes.
In 1997, the ministry of Gender and Children’s Affairs of Sierra Leone was
merged with the ministry of Social Welfare and was renamed as the ministry of Social
Welfare Gender and Children’s Affairs (MSWGCA). Although, the two institutions
operate from different locations but they are supervised by the same minister. The
1991 constitution of Sierra Leone and other laws provide the statutory framework and
mandate for the MSWGCA. The Child Right Act (CRA) of Sierra Leone gives the
ministry of social welfare gender and children’s affairs the responsibility for
promoting the right and welfare of children all over the country, this they do in
tandem with other inline ministries, departments, agencies of government and nongovernment organizations. The ministry also has the responsibility to monitor,
supervise, and coordinate the activities of child welfare committees, in providing
them with training, advice, guidance and support (administrative and logistics), and
also for the formulation of rules and regulations on how the committees should
function.[12] Although, there is no central authority for the overall management and
regulation of child protection services in Sierra Leone, but the child right act does
give the MSWGCA the responsibility for regulating foster care and for regulating
approved foster care home/ orphanages for children.
The organization of the ministry is based in a traditional civil service model,
comprising of directorates. The directorate of children’s affairs in the MSWGCA
directly deals with problems affecting children and develops possible solutions to
those challenges. Like all other directorates, there is a structure of divisions with each
having the mandate to cover certain aspects that deals with the welfare and protection
38
of children. These include; the division of Child Trafficking, Child Abuse (female
genital mutilation, corporal punishment, rape, early child marriage) and Child neglect
and welfare.
District Level: All district councils are responsible by way of constitutional
provision for protecting the rights and promoting the welfare of all children within
their constituencies. Each district council has a district council planning officer who
has the responsibility to develop an annual strategic plan and budget which the
council will present to the finance and budgeting department. The purpose of this
budget is for child welfare and development programs in the district. These programs
include sensitization, scholarship allocation to children, supporting orphans and
vulnerable children. Each district has a small team of social development officers,
who are under the supervision of a social development officer. This team in many
cases is based in the district headquarters, but the social development workers are
posted to the field and are expected to report to the social development officer who in
turn report to the district council. Their role includes issues relating to children in
conflict with the law and the protection of children in areas where the district council
cannot reach [15].
Village and chiefdom level: At the village and chiefdom level issues pertaining
to child welfare are handled by village headmen, informal village committees. These
structures at village level have always been there. However, with the introduction of
the Child Right Act, the ministry formalized them. At the apex of the village structure
is the chiefdom welfare committee. Its function is to monitor sub- committee and to
handle cases of child abuse in the respective villages. The administration of local
courts is governed by the Local Courts Act of 1963, which also outlines jurisdictional
limits and an appeal process leading in principle through the justice (court) system up
to the Supreme Court, even though such appeals are extremely rare [61].
Village headmen also preside over minor cases of abuse, fine or punish those
that are in conflict with the law. They also facilitate fund raising activities for child
39
welfare programs. Because of the fact that village headmen in Sierra Leone have the
opportunity to interact with their subjects more than the central government does, they
have the advantage to influence their activities. This has led child protection agencies,
INGOs, to partner with them in overcoming challenges of child abuse [43].
The ministry of MSWGCA has also, formed powerful partnership with inline
government ministries, agencies, departments, to seek the interest of Sierra Leonean
children. Like the MSWGCA, these organizations also have the mandate to protect
the welfare of children.
Sierra Leone Police (SLP): Under the memorandum of understanding (MOU)
signed by the ministry of Social Welfare Gender and Children’s Affairs, since 2007
police stations all over the country is required to establish a family support unit
(FSU). These family support units are responsible for dealing with cases that has to do
with juvenile offenders, sexual abuse, maltreatment, domestic violence and so on.
There are over 40 FSUs around the country, with each district having at least two.
These FSUs are dedicated to ensuring that children’s right are protected, alleged
perpetrators are arrested, investigated and punished if found guilty. A social worker is
assigned to each FSU. The responsibilities of the FSU police officer are to investigate
alleged cases of child abuse, arrest perpetrators and prepare cases for the public
prosecution (DPP)[55]. The Social Development Worker (SDW) also ensures that
interview processes are child sensitive, family liaison and assessments are conducted;
referrals are conducted where it is necessary and reintegration of the child is
monitored.
Ministry of Health and Sanitation: The ministry of Health and Sanitation also
compliment the effort of the MSWGCA in protecting and safeguarding the health of
children in Sierra Leone. The ministry of health has District Health Management team
(DHMT) working in the district level. They have the primary responsibility for
safeguarding the health of children within the district. Although hospitals are found in
each major town, the DHMT operates in peripheral health units (PHU) targeting
40
smaller communities. They are the first point of call for majority of the population
living outside the major towns and serve as the primary health care providers for the
greater number of the population.
The paramount role of the PHU (particularly community health officers, CHOs)
is to provide free healthcare services for victims of child abuse (physical, sexual).
Under the National Referral Protocol for victims of sexual and gender based violence
(2009), the PHU staff have the responsibility to present initial medical assessment and
refer the case to the District Health Medical Team (DHMT). The Chief Medical
Officer has the mandate to arrange for a forensic examination of a victim of child
abuse at the hospital as and when requested by the Family Support Unit (FSU) of the
Sierra Leone Police.
Ministry of Justice: The child Right Act (CRA) of Sierra Leone made provision
for the quasi – judicial and judicial structures for the handling of civil and criminal
matters at the district level. The Child Right Act of Sierra Leone also gives right to
the district family court jurisdiction in all matters that concerns parentage, access,
custody and maintenance of children, which include orders in relation to child who is
in need of protection. This court constitute a panel made up of two to four members of
the community appointed based on their experience in child right issues, one of them
must be a social welfare officer. Criminal cases that involve child abuse are heard by
either the magistrates or the high court of Sierra Leone, depending on the nature and
seriousness of the crime committed. [37]
Civil Society and NGO Structure: Worth noting, is the significant contribution
of the international child right/welfare organizations, they have formed powerful
partnership with the government of Sierra Leone in eradication child abuse and
neglect. Most of these organizations have national representatives of the larger
international organizations. The ministry of social welfare maintains contact with all
the NGOs working in the country to protect children. Some of the NGOs that are
presently operating in the country are as follows:
41
UNICEF;
GOAL;
Plan International;
Save the Children;
Street Child;
International Rescue Committee;
Child Fund;
Don Bosco;
Defense for Children.
Many of these NGOs were instrumental in protecting children during the civil
war in the 1990s and also during outbreaks. Some of them have broader child right
focus and work on several issues including education of the girl child, health, gender
and development. Plan International is an international NGO that is leading the way in
increasing child protection in Sierra Leone. The local chapter of Plan International is
called Plan Sierra Leone. This NGO is working tirelessly to ensure that all children in
Sierra Leone are free from abuse and neglect and are assured of social security. Plan
Sierra Leone has undertaken different child protection programs. Their child
protection programs have helped to strengthen community – based child protection
mechanisms and national child protection systems. Plan Sierra Leone has worked with
communities to carryout extensive awareness raising resulting in increased reporting
of incidents of teenage pregnancy, sexual abuse (harassment), early and forced
marriage, female genital mutilation, gender based violence, child labor, corporal
punishment, child trafficking, child molestation, drug abuse, child violence and so
on.[53]
Plan Sierra Leone has also formed partnership with the Ministry of Social
Welfare Gender and Children’s Affairs, the media, school authorities, paralegals, and
social workers, helping them to access training programs on topics such as child safe
42
guarding, community – based child protection mechanisms and child programming.
Many villages and communities from about 12 chiefdoms across their operational
areas haven taken advantage of such training and are now well informed on topics
such as child right Act of 2007, referral pathways and reporting channels for child
abuse, gender – based violence and violence against children.
The Ebola disease outbreak in 2014 left many children displaced, Plan Sierra
Leone played a pivotal role. As family tracing and reunification lead, Plan Sierra
Leone supported the government through the ministry of social welfare, to identify
children who were unaccompanied or separated from their families. They either
reunified them with their family members or placed them in appropriate interim or
alternative care arrangements.
In response to escalating threats to children’s survival, development and
protection as a result of outbreaks, Plan Sierra Leone established case management
teams to support the MSWGCA in responding to protection alerts received by
ministry- led protection desk at district response centers. As a member of the child
protection case management steering committee Plan Sierra Leone also supported the
MSWGCA and UNICEF to pilot case management tools in many parts of the country
in advance of the national launch of the child protection information management
system. [62]
Also, very significant is the role of religious organizations in embarking on
programs that seek to protect children. During the civil war in Sierra Leone, faith
based organizations played pivotal role in rehabilitating and re- integrating child
soldiers. They sometimes form partnership with other NGOs and government in
tackling challenges affecting children. [48] This is because religious organizations are
uniquely positioned to promote equitable outcomes for the most vulnerable children
and families. Their moral influence and extensive networks give them access to most
disenfranchised and deprived groups, those that government and NGOs are sometimes
less able to reach effectively.
43
In light of the above description of the role of government bodies and nongovernmental organizations to fight against child abuse this research has employed
the statistical data of a secondary researcher. The researcher conducted a total of 661
conversations throughout the country following a “purposive sampling” technique as
the study aimed to represent the cultural and social diversity with equal gender
representation.
The researcher also focused his efforts to engage with marginalized groups
such as disabled or street children. This research was conducted in poor and rural
areas as well as urban settings. The target population was children and adults aged 10
-35, but a special attention was paid to children and youths between the ages of 10 17.
Table1:
Number of conversations by sex, age, and region
children
adults
Total
Moyamba
boys
13
girls
25
men
47
women
27
Kono
16
15
10
19
60
Kambia
18
10
15
13
56
Western area
20
20
25
32
97
Portloko
17
19
10
10
56
Tonkolili
12
12
18
14
56
Bombali
20
11
13
12
56
Bo
20
19
35
10
84
Pujehun
28
15
20
21
84
Total
164
146
193
158
661
112
A total of 304 women and girls were reached during conversation representing
nearly 46% of the total of the sample. The “snowball” sampling technique was used
44
for key informant interviews in order to target the principal actors in child protection
in Sierra Leone. A total of 661 respondents were interviewed from different districts
of the country including children and adults (parents, civil society workers, FSU
police, social workers and more). The highest number of respondents came from
Moyamba (112) followed by western area (rural and urban 97). More adult men (193)
were interviewed than the rest of the variables in the sex categories. In the children
category more boys (164) were interviewed than girls (146). Interviews were also
conducted with representatives from international and national NGOs and
representatives from ministries and the family support unit of the Sierra Leone police
force [18].
For the purpose of this study the research was focused on the following types of
violence, exclusive violence in the community, violence at school, violence against
women (girls), child exploitation, teenage pregnancy and early marriage and violence
at home, because they are the most prevalence in the country.
Figure 4: Violence categories by region
Note: The data are adapted from Search for Common Ground Research Report (2015) on violence
against children and youth in Sierra Leone
45
After taking a close look at the above graph (figure 4) you will come to realise
that these violence categories are repartitioned by regions. These regions are
Moyamba, Kono, Kambia, Western Area (rural and urban), Portloko, Tonkolili /
Bombali, Pujehun and Bo. Special attention is also paid to the existence of 6 different
forms of abuse (exclusive violence in the community, violence at school, violence
against women/girls, child exploitation, teenage pregnancy and early child marriage
and violence at home) practiced in each region. From the graph we saw that
Moyamba experience the highest forms of abuse with teenage pregnancy and early
child marriage identified as the most prevalence abuse in the region followed by
violence at home. Second highest is Pujehun with the highest form of child abuse
there being violence against children at home. Pujehun is followed by
Tonkolili/Bombali, western area, Bo, Kono, Kambia, and Port Loko, which was
identified as the region with lowest existence of child abuse in the country.
Worth nothing is the fact that Moyamba, Pujehun and Bo, which are located in
the southern part of the country, put together experience the existence child abuse
more than Tonkolili/Bombali, Kambia and Port Loko (northern part of the country)
put together. Kono and Western area where the capital city Freetown is situated
experience lesser forms of abuse. Reason being that there are more NGOs, civil
societies, religious organizations and child advocates organizations operating there.
Significant also is the high level of literacy rate in the western area that has helped to
reduce child abuse as compared to the other regions. Traditional practices and cultural
beliefs of the people in the respective regions also affected the figures in the data
collected.
Also very significant is that figures 5 to 12 disaggregated the types of violence
categories by gender.
Despite the fact that a lot of effort has been made and laws been passed that
have given them right to be protected, Sierra Leone is still experiencing the
46
prevalence of child abuse. A range of factors have been identified as causes of child
vulnerability that was portrayed in the above graphs. Among the factors that have
been identified are lack of access to quality education, rural–urban migration,
displacement due to armed conflict or natural disaster, trafficking, harmful traditional
practices, gender-based violence and discrimination due to gender, ability, political,
ethnic or religious background. An effective national child protection system
recognizes that the state has the ultimate responsibilities and human rights obligations
towards children. [8]
CDC’s Division of Violence Control for instance believes, that by building and
strengthening child protection systems in any society that are based on children’s
rights, measures to protect all children will be holistic, inclusive, sustainable and wellcoordinated. That is to say, rights-based systems will lead to better protection for
children.
They believe that there should be a national child protection system consisting
of; laws and policies that protect children from abuse, neglect, exploitation, and
violence; also a central government mechanism for child protection which brings
together all government departments, provincial administrations, the local levels of
government and civil society to form a mechanism that will bring perpetrators to
justice. It also needs effective regulation and monitoring at all levels, for example in
childcare institutions and schools and a committed workforce with relevant
competencies and mandates. [9]
In addition, a functioning child protection system should provide child-friendly
services at all levels and be informed by children’s views and experiences. It
strengthens families in the care and protection of their children. The services are
regulated by quality standards and delivered by the government or accredited social
agencies.
Most Non- governmental organizations working with children are of the view
that most of the third world countries in the world, have a long way to go before
47
reaching this level and we therefore work to find strategic entry points for advocacy
and capacity building in each country. These strategies range from a focus on
individuals, families and relationship, to broader community and societal change. [59]
These strategies are needed to better address the interplay between individual-family
behavior and broader neighborhood, community and cultural contexts.
Public perception of Child Protection system (Community, Civil society and the
media)
In Sierra Leone, the community plays a pivotal role in the security and
development of the child. Social security of the child is achieved by providing access
to basic needs (shelter and food), quality and affordable education and medical care.
These together with parental guidance and love, as well as peaceful and conducive
home serve as important factors for ensuring that children feel safe.
Worth noting, is the significant role that the traditional institutions are still
playing in the lives and living patterns of the people of Sierra Leone more especially
in the area of children issues, and the perceptions of the communities in responding to
the challenges they are facing. Each community has its leaders that serve as a bridge
between the community and the government. It is still common practice to see chiefs
presiding over cases that involves child abuse. Traditional resolution to these cases
continues to play an important role over the present formal arrangements of
government. They perceive child abuse issues as community problems which can be
settled at community level by community elders or religious leaders rather than the
central government. [33]
Sierra Leone’s tradition recognizes the child as a property of the community
and because of that everybody in the community has the morale responsibility for
ensuring the wellbeing and protection of every child residing in that community. This
includes the resolution of crimes committed against any child by another member of
the community. Most community members in Sierra Leone are of the view that child
48
abuse may have far-reaching effect than the way most people will think. They believe
that it has the potential of causing stigma to not only the child but also the family.
Both the electronic and print media in Sierra Leone have played a significant
role in making sure child abuse and neglect is seen as a thing of the past. As a
powerful platform for the dissemination of information, the media has always been
propagating messages of child abuse prevention. They have been engaging
stakeholders (governments, civil society (including NGOs), and communities in the
bid to finding ways to address the urgent need of a solution to child abuse and neglect.
For instance, it is common for someone to hear a jingle on radio or television talking
about child right protection or radio soap opera on the same topic. In the case of the
print media you will always find a column in many of the newspapers educating
people on how to protect the interest of the child.
The media in Sierra Leone is trusted by majority of the people as being
credible, reliable, objective and free from political influence. They have always been
using microphone as a tool of communication in reaching the length and breadth of
the country, to help reduce child abuse, poverty, support the people (both parents and
children) in understanding their rights as well as their responsibilities to each other.
Recently in Sierra Leone, there was rampant occurrence of rape cases involving
children which has thrown the issue of rape and sexual violence of children into the
spotlight. The media saw it as their corporate social responsibility to help people of
Sierra Leone to understand why and how the country will have a healthy, vibrant and
productive future general if they protect the rights and social welfare of children of
Sierra Leone and provide them with welfare materials.
The media of Sierra Leone has also organized community engagement
programs in other to identify why there is child abuse and ways of finding possible
solutions to overcome the challenge. For instance, a popular television and radio
program called “Tok Bot Salone” recently engaged the then deputy minister of social
welfare gender and children’s affairs Mr. Mustapha Bai Atilla who is a former
49
journalist, the president’s gender adviser, the head of the department of sexual abuse
in the Sierra Leone police force, representatives from the Legal Access to Women,
Community leaders, civil society groups in a bid to identify the causes and
preventions of sexual abuse with particular attention on abuse against children.
At the end of the program the media identified the following factors as possible
reasons for the prevalence of child abuse and neglect in Sierra Leone. Firstly, they
identified lack of proper education on the Child Right Act of 2007 and also the
fundamental human right issues (especially the right of the child). Secondly, they
identified the absence of proper civic education in communities and schools as
another contributing factor. The media help stake holders to see the need for the
inclusion of civic education into the curriculum of schools. The media believed that
will enhance the awareness of children as well as their parents or caregivers on their
rights and responsibilities towards each other. [31]
The media has also actively followed alleged cases of child abuse and neglect
that are being investigated in police stations (FSU) as well as those in court that are
being heard or waiting for judgments.
Primary school education is supposedly free but schools demand fees and also
charge for uniforms and books. Sexual abuse of children is a major and growing issue,
and the government takes little action against it. Sierra Leone is a signatory of the
International Convention on the Rights of the Child, but not the 1980 Hague
Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction. It has had a Child
Rights Act since 2007, but the law has been far from fully implemented. Marriage of
girls under 18 is illegal, but forced child marriage is widespread, with more than half
of females marrying before age 18. Child prostitution is also on the rise, with most of
the street children in cities working as prostitutes. There is little effort by the
government to do anything about this state of affairs. [34]
The Human Rights Commission of Sierra Leone expressed concern in 2011 that
pregnant girls had been removed from an examination hall during the administration
50
of an important test, the Basic Education Certificate Examination, an action that is
described as “a denial of the right to education.” [32]
This research conducted a survey on the perception of the Sierra Leonean
public on of Child Protection system. The following tables and analysis are the
outcome of the research survey that was conducted. 220 of the 400 questioners printed
and distributed were returned to be analyzed which gives us response rate of 55%.
Response Demography
The following tables table with provide us with a breakdown on the response
the demography of the research.
Table 2:
Respondents by Gender
Gender
Number of responses
Percentage of
responses
Population estimate as
of march 2018
Male
73
33.2
48
Female
147
66.8
52
Total
220
100
100
Respondents Gender
73
Male
Female
147
Figure 13: Responses by gender
51
The above table and pie chart indicates that 66.8% of female responded as
against 33.2% of male respondents. This means that the sample is little but bias
towards the perception of female respondents. The reason behind the gender disparity
in our sample can also be attributed to the fact that the female population (52%) in
Sierra Leone a little bit greater that the male population which is 48%. Also
significant is the fact that woman are more willing and comfortable to participate in
the survey. The reason behind their overwhelming consent to participate is that they
are well informed with the topic of research (child issues).
Table 3:
Age of respondents
Age
Number of responses
% of responses
18 - 25
21
9.5
26 – 35
56
25.5
36 – 45
66
30
46+
55
25
Do not wish to say
22
10
Total
220
100
Respondent Age bracket
21
22
18 - 25
26 – 35
56
55
36 – 45
46+
Do not wish to say
66
Figure 14: Responses by age bracket
52
Base on the above data we could see that the youths between18 – 25 are
underrepresented in the responses with only 9.5%. This is owned to the fact that they
always shy away from responding to surveys. The highest response rate came from
adults between the ages of 36 – 45. Their response rate is 30%. Apart from the fact
that they are familiar with the topic they are also more matured and easy to convince
to participate. We also got 25.5% responses from the age range of 26 – 35 and 25%
from 46 and above. 10% of the respondents preferred on to disclose their age.
Table 4:
Employment status
Number of responses
% of responses
Work Part Time
32
14.5
Work Full Time
108
49.1
Self Employed
38
17.3
Unemployed
10
4.5
Students
20
9.1
Others
12
5.5
Total
220
100
Employment status
20
12
32
work part time
Work full time
10
Self employed
38
unemployed
students
108
Others
Figure 15: Responses by employment status
53
The above data represent the employment status of the respondents. We could
see that 32 respondents representing 14.5% of our sample said they work part time.
108 respondents which are 49.1 are full time workers. 38 (17.3%) respondents said
they are self-employed. 10 respondents which makes 4.5% of our sample are
unemployed. The data further shows that 20 respondents are students, which is 9/1%
of the sample. The remaining 12 respondents which are 5.5% fell under other
categories. We had a low turnout of unemployed people, only 5% of them
participation in answering the questioners. Most of these unemployment people fall
within the category of illiterate category of the population and because of that they
were shy to participate in the survey. Their orientation is that surveys are organized
for educated people who can read and write.
Table 5:
Question: Men or women who do you believe are more likely to abuse children?
Table 5:
Number of responses
% of responses
Men
188
94.5
women
11
5.5
total
199
100
11
Men
women
188
Figure 16: Gender most likely to abuse a child
54
199 respondents choose to answer this question and 94.5% of those respondents
believed that men are more likely to abuse children as against 5.5% of women. The
reason behind this huge difference could be attributed to the fact that greater maternal
altruism is purely biological; that women have evolved over human history to care
more than men about the welfare of their children.
The maternal bond is typically the relationship between a mother and her child.
While it typically occurs due to pregnancy and childbirth, it may also occur between a
woman and an unrelated child, such as in adoption. There are hundreds of factors,
physical and emotional, which influence the mother-infant bonding process. Because
of the bond that is mostly cultivated between women and their children they can’t hurt
them or in any form afford to see them suffer.
On the other hand most Sierra Leonean men have the perception that their
responsibility is to provide for the family. They fail to find time to cultivate cordial
relationship with their children. In the case where there is little or no bond it is easy
for abuse to happen, either physical or psychological abuse. Although some of these
abuses happen unconsciously out of ignorance from the side of the men or lack of
understand the needs of the children (absent of communication).
Individuals most likely to abuse children
20
Parent/guardian
34
Other family member
61
Older person who the
child knows
105
Older person who the
child does not know
Figure 17: Individuals most likely to abuse children
55
Table 6:
Question: which of the following individuals do you believe is the most likely to
abuse a child?
Number of
responses
% of responses
Parent/guardian
34
15.5
Other family member
105
47.7
Older person who the child knows
61
27.7
Older person who the child does not know
20
9.1
Aggregate results
Number of
respondents
% of
respondents
Someone known to the child
200
90
Strangers
20
10
Total
220
100
After given a close attention to the data in figure 17 we could realise that close
relatives/family members most likely have the tendency to abuse children. The
response rate shows that 105 which makes 48% response rate believe that other
family member apart from the child’s parents or guardians mostly violate their rights.
34 respondents goes for parent or guardians whiles 61 respondents (28 %) of
the sample size choose older persons who the child knows. The remaining 20
respondents (9%) of the total responses choose adults that the child does not know.
56
Aggregated result
20
Someone known to the
child
strangers
200
Figure 18: Aggregated results of individuals most likely to abuse children
All the respondents choose to answer this question which makes it 100%
response of the sample size. From the responses above we can see that the general
consensus among respondents was that it would be someone known to the child who
is likely to commit child abuse against the child (91%). The result of this data clearly
manifest that children are mostly violated by people very close to them. From our
sample size which is 220 respondents we could realise that 200 respondents believe
that someone known to the children has the potential of abuse them as against 20
respondents (9%) that choose strangers.
The table below portrays the views of respondents on their ability to identify
inappropriate behavior against a child. 205 (12%) respondents choose to answer this
question. 25 respondents said they are very confident in identifying inappropriate
behavior. 129 respondents which are 63% of our sample choose fairly confident. 38
respondents said they are not very confident and the remaining 13 respondents said
they are not at all confident of identifying any form of inappropriate behavior. From
57
the outcome of the responses we could realize that the highest number of respondents
choose fairly confident.
Table 7:
Question: How confident are you that you could identify inappropriate behavior
of an adult towards a child that may suggest possible child abuse?
Number of respondents
% of respondents
Very confident
25
12.2
Fairly confident
129
63
Not very confident
38
18.5
Not at all confident
13
6.3
Aggregated results
Number of respondents
% of respondents
Confident
154
75
Not confident
51
25
Total
205
100
Identifying inappropriate behaviour
13
25
38
Very confident
Fairly confident
Not very confident
Not at all confident
129
Figure 19: Identifying inappropriate behavior towards children
58
Reason been it is very difficult to identify child abuse in the first instance. We
could recall from figure 18, that people that are very close to the child are the ones
most likely to abuse the child. Because of that it takes time for an out sider to just
conclude that an abuse is taking place unless he has to carry out a thorough
investigation to make sure that his/her guess is correct.
Aggregated results
51
Confident
Not confident
154
Figure 20: Aggregated results of Identifying inappropriate behavior towards children
205 respondents choose to answer this question. 75% of the respondents stated
that they were confident that they could identify inappropriate behavior that may
suggest possible child abuse. On the other hand, 25 % stated that they are not
confident that they could identify inappropriate from adult perpetrators that may
suggest possible child abuse. The confident section of the aggregated result include
very confident and fairly confident respondents that sum up to 154(75%) of the
sample and the not confident section include not very confident and not at all
confident respondents that sum up to 51(25%) of the sample.
59
Table 8:
If you suspect that, a child was at risk of abuse from an adult. What would you
do in the first instance?
Percentage of responses
Contact social service
50
Contact police
65
Speak to the child’s parents/guardians
49
Speak to another adult
48
Contact religious/community leaders
45
Others
10
Note: Question: The following table outlines the responses. This question was analyzed as
multiple choice style questions. The percentage of responses will not total 100%.
The above table illustrates that more than half the respondents 65% prefer to
talk to the police in the first instance. Also, half of the respondents 50% prefer to talk
to
the
social
service.
49%
choose
parents,
48%
another
adult,
45%
religious/community leaders, 10% others respectively.
Child abuse and neglect has also been a serious challenge for policy makers and
professionals working with children in Russia. It has become difficult to protect the
rights of children, particularly with the increasing incidents of child abuse all over the
country. Several presidential programs and legislations have been undertaking to
address the issue of child abuse. These programs are at the center of domestic public
discussions; but because of the lack of sufficient budget to finance the programs,
together with the restrictions of the operations of non – governmental organizations
have been major challenges.
Erroneous public perceptions matter because they influence policy. In spite of
the enormous challenges they are facing in combating child abuse, the Russian society
is recognized as a modern society. The Russian Constitution, which was adopted in
1993, provides for the state protection of childhood, motherhood, and the family
60
(Russian Constitution, Article 38). According to the Constitution, hundreds of laws,
presidential decrees, government resolutions, executive regulations of specific
agencies, and legal acts of the constituent components of the Russian Federation are
supposed to secure rights of children. [16] The primary documents in this field are the
Family Code of the Russian Federation and the Federal Law on Basic Guarantees of
the Rights of the Child in the Russian Federation of July 21, 1998. (Family code,
Russia federation 1996).18 Child protection policy is also affected by the
implementation of relevant provisions of such legislative acts, as the Civil Code,
Labor Code, Housing Code, Criminal Code, Criminal Correctional Code,
Fundamentals of Health Care Legislation, Federal Law on State Assistance to
Individuals having Minor Children, Federal Law on State Support of Youth and
Children’s Organizations, Federal Law on Social Assistance, and many others.
Several targeted programs aimed at creating opportunities for children’s
development and protection of their rights were developed by the federal government
and the President of Russia. [22] These programs are dedicated to such aspects as the
development of gifted children, the organization of summer vacation for children,
protection of children whose parents are refugees or forced migrants, treatment of
catastrophe victims, family planning, counteraction to drug abuse, and some others.
Per Russian tradition, issues included in government or presidential programs receive
better financing; their implementation is better controlled by the responsible
government agencies; and legislative support is provided. Over the years Russia as a
country has been struggling with the challenge of child sexual abuse. Child
prostitution is more evidence in St. Petersburg and other cities bordering the
Scandinavian countries.
Inspire of all these challenges the Russian society has continued to frown on
perpetrators of child abuse that includes parents, care givers, teachers and other adults
who tramples into the rights of children. The Russian society is well informed on the
importance of protecting children in other to allow them to develop healthy and
61
vibrant so the future generation will be productive. Significantly, Nongovernmental
organizations, universities,
religious
groups,
civil
society groups
are
all
complimenting the effort of the Russian government to develop social welfare
programs for less privileged children all over the country. Worth noting also, is their
effort on organizing awareness raising programs for parents and children on their
roles and responsibilities to each other and to society as a whole. [66]
The above analysis has demonstrated that although child abuse is a universal
problem with similar causes and effects on the society in general and children in
particular. In spite of that, having done a comparative study of Russia and Sierra
Leone it shows that it is more prevalence in Sierra Leone that Russia. Reason being,
Russia as a first world country has progressed to the modernization stage. This means,
their society is more enlightened on child right issues; they have stronger child
protection institutions. Sierra Leone on the other hand is a developing country in the
global south with plenty of institutional challenges. Also, worth noting is the low
level of civic education among the population coupled with the cultural believes of
most people, especially in rural areas that corporal punishment and other forms of
treating children are accepted norms.
Notwithstanding, both societies share a common value in the way that
government organizations partner with non-governmental organizations ( local and
international) in tackling the challenges of child abuse in their respective societies.
In the next sub topic will critically analyze the Model of Governmental Bodies
and NGO Cooperation/partnership for child abuse prevention. It will explain how they
complement each other’s effort for the prevention of child abuse in our respective
societies.
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2.2. Model of Governmental bodies and NGO cooperation for child abuse prevention
To understand what a systems approach to child abuse and protection is, one
has to start with the definition of a system. References to systems are ubiquitous;
many if not most endeavors refer to systems in one way or another. For the purpose of
this project, the discussion will be based on key cross-cutting themes that emerged
from this literature, with a particular emphasis on human right protection, education,
and social services and security systems of the child.
It is a fact that every society has to think deliberately about how it will protect
its children. Normative standards such as laws, culture, and religion may influence
how members of a community choose to protect children and the choices they make
may well affect the very nature of childhood. Nevertheless, the essential question
remains: how will children be protected from violence, abuse, exploitation, and
neglect, as well as man-made and natural emergencies, as a matter of a child’s
fundamental rights.
When it comes to protecting children, the family plays a central role,
particularly during the child’s earliest days. Children are also part of a broader
community where their relationships, engagement, and roles deepen over time and
take on increased significance. [73] For this reason, protecting children is both a
private and a public responsibility.
Factors increasing a child’s vulnerability
A number of studies, mostly from the developed world, have suggested that
certain characteristics of children increase the risk for abuse (child vulnerability). The
following are some of the factors:
Special characteristics
Premature infants, twins and handicapped children have been shown to be at
increased risk for physical abuse and neglect. There are conflicting findings from
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studies on the importance of mental retardation as a risk factor. It is believed that low
birth weight, prematurity, illness, or physical or mental handicaps in the infant or
child interfere with attachment and bonding and may make the child more vulnerable
to abuse.
Caregiver and family characteristics
Research has associated certain characteristics of the caregiver, as well as
features of the family environment, to child abuse and neglect. While some factors –
including demographic ones – are related to variation in risk, others are related to the
psychological and behavioral characteristics of the caregiver or to aspects of the
family environment that may compromise parenting and lead to child maltreatment.
Family size and household composition
The size of the family can also increase the risk for abuse. A study of parents in
Guinea, for example, found that families with four or more children were three times
more likely to be violent towards their children than parents with fewer children.
However, it is not always simply the size of the family that matters. Data from a range
of countries indicate that household overcrowding increases the risk of child abuse.
Unstable family environments, in which the composition of the household frequently
changes as family members and others move in and out, are a feature particularly
noted in cases of chronic neglect.
Personality and behavioral characteristics
A number of personality and behavioral characteristics have been linked, in
many studies, of Child abuse and neglect. Parents more likely to abuse their children
physically tend to have low Self-esteem, poor control of their impulses, mental health
problems, and to display antisocial behavior. Neglectful parents have many of these
same problems and may also have difficulty planning important life events such as
marriage, having children or seeking employment. Many of these characteristics
compromise parenting and are associated with disrupted social relationships, an
inability to cope with stress and difficulty in reaching social support systems. Abusive
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parents may also be uninformed and have unrealistic expectations about child
development. Research has found that abusive parents show greater irritation and
annoyance in response to their children’s moods and behavior, that they are less
supportive, affectionate, playful and responsive to their children, and that they are
more controlling and hostile.
Prior history of abuse
Studies have shown that parents maltreated as children are at higher risk of
abusing their own children. The relationship here is complex, though, and some
investigations have suggested that the majority of abusing parents were not, in fact,
themselves abused. While empirical data suggest that there is indeed a relationship,
the importance of this risk factor may have been overstated. Other factors that have
been linked to child abuse – such as young parental age, stress, isolation,
overcrowding in the home, substance abuse and poverty – may be more predictive.
Violence in the home
Increasing attention is being given to intimate partner violence and its
relationship to child abuse. Data from studies in countries as geographically and
culturally distinct as China, Colombia, Nigeria, Egypt, India, Mexico, the Philippines,
and South Africa have all found a strong relationship between these two forms of
violence. In a recent study in India, the occurrence of domestic violence in the home
doubled the risk of child abuse. Among known victims of child abuse, 40% or more
have also reported domestic violence in the home.
In fact, the relationship may be even stronger, since many agencies charged
with protecting children do not routinely collect data on other forms of violence in
families. [21]
Other characteristics
Stress and social isolation of the parent have also been linked to child abuse and
neglect. It is believed that stress resulting from job changes, loss of income, health
problems or other aspects of the family environment can heighten the level of conflict
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in the home and the ability of members to cope or find support. Those better able to
find social support may be less likely to abuse children, even when other known risk
factors are present. In a case–control study in Borno state, northern Nigeria for
instance, children living in single parent families were at significantly greater risk for
abuse than those in two-parent families. The risk for abuse was lower, though, among
those who were better able to gain access to social support.
Community factors
Poverty
Numerous studies across many countries have shown a strong association
between poverty and child maltreatment. Rates of abuse are higher in communities
with high levels of unemployment and concentrated poverty. Such communities are
also characterized by high levels of population turnover and overcrowded housing.
Research shows that chronic poverty adversely affects children through its impact on
parental behavior and the availability of community resources. Communities with
high levels of poverty tend to have deteriorating physical and social infrastructures
and fewer of the resources and amenities found in wealthier communities. [10]
Social capital
Social capital represents the degree of cohesion and solidarity that exists within
a community. Children living in areas with less ‘‘social capital’’ or social investment
in the community appear to be at greater risk of abuse and have more psychological or
behavioral problems. On the other hand, social networks and neighborhood
connections have been shown to be protective of children. This is true even for
children with a number of risk factors – such as poverty, violence, substance abuse
and parents with low levels of educational achievement – who appear to be protected
by high levels of social capital.
Societal factors
A range of society-level factors are considered to have important influences on
the well-being of children and families. These factors – not examined to date in most
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countries as risk factors for child abuse – include: the role of cultural values and
economic forces in shaping the choices facing families and also, shaping their
response to these forces.
. Inequalities related to sex and income – factors present in other types of
violence and likely to be related to child maltreatment as well.
. Cultural norms surrounding gender roles, parent–child relationships and the
privacy of the family.
. Child and family policies – such as those related to parental leave, maternal
employment and child care arrangements.
. The strength of the social welfare system that is, the sources of support that
provide a safety net for children and families.
. The nature and extent of social protection, and the responsiveness of the
criminal justice system
. Larger social conflicts and war, many of these broader cultural and social
factors can affect the ability of parents to care for children – enhancing or lessening
the stresses associated with family life and influencing the resources available to
families. [56]
Main types of actors in the child protection system
The multiple elements of a child protection system operate at different levels of
the ecology of the child, from the micro to the macro level. This ecology of the child
could be represented into the following diagram:
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SOCIAL CONDITIONS Exo
System CULTURAL
VALUES
POLITICAL
IDEOLOGIES
SCHOOLS Macro
system COMMUNITY
HEALTH SYSTEM
PRE-SCHOOL
Mezzo
system
RELIGIOUS GROUPS
CHILD CLUBS
Micro System
PEERS CLASS ROOM
SIBLINGS FAMILY
Child
Figure 21: The Eco-system of child protection system
Children’s well-being depends on their relationships with others and the social,
political, spiritual, physical and Environmental contexts in which they live. The
ecology of the child shows us the different levels and types of Influence on a child’s
development and protection, from the closest (e.g. Families and peers) to the farthest
(e.g. Political and cultural systems and structures). International non-governmental
organizations like World Vision have identified five main types of actors in the child
Protection system which has an impact on various levels of the ecology of the child.
(See Figure 21)
The five types help to conceptualize different contributors and roles in the child
protection system, and recognize different entry points for impacting the child
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protection system. Each type of actor might cover multiple levels of the ecology of
the child. Also, these categories are not mutually exclusive – some people or
institutions might fit in more than one type of actor. Below is a brief explanation of
the five main types of actors in the child Protection system.
The Child.
The child is the focus of the child protection system, as well as an important
factor in the system. The effectiveness of the system is ultimately measured at the
level of the child – whether children are safe from abuse, neglect, exploitation and
other forms of violence. Children are also one of the actors in the system, and as such
have a major role to play in their own protection. Life skills and spiritual development
can build children’s capacity to make good decisions, influence their environment
positively and build resilience to difficult situations. Their innate skills of selfprotection, plus their growing capacities to manage themselves and influence their
environment, mean that they are able not only to protect themselves but other children
as well. It also means that they are equally able to do harm to other children.
MICRO LEVEL
Family
The family often plays the most influential role in the quality of care and
protection that each child receives. The Role of the family is determined through the
knowledge, attitudes, capacity and beliefs of each family related to the care and
protection of children. However, families rarely operate outside community
boundaries and are critically influenced by local culture, including traditional
attitudes, behaviors and practices. [50] It is important to recognize local cultural
understanding of the definition and roles of family, as well as the protective roles and
responsibilities of families. For example, in some cultures the extended family has a
critical role to play in the protection and care of children, and gender often determines
different roles which are played within families.
Peers and Classroom
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In ways similar to the community, the peer group becomes an agency of
enculturation and learning. Even very young children develop a sense of self from
their perceptions of important people in their surroundings, including relatives,
teachers, and peers. Socioeconomic status, ethnic identity, and parents’ occupations
affect how families view themselves and the process by which they socialize their
children. Later, as children leave the home setting, their self-perception and
socializing skills become influenced by how their peers view them.
When children move out from family to child-care center, school, and the
community at large, they begin to form attachments, and friendships emerge through
their play. These relationships influence behavior. Even infants and toddlers are
observed reacting to other infants by touching them, by crying when others cry, and
later by offering nurturance or comfort. By about age three, early friendships begin to
form and children’s peers begin to have a more lasting influence.
Siblings
In large families, young kids can't always get a lot of individual attention from
parents - but healthy interactions with an older sibling might help compensate for that,
a new study suggests. How older children interact with their siblings is tied to the
younger children's development, Canadian researchers found. "The idea is that here is
this effect of being in a large family where you don't get that many resources, but if
you get an older sibling that's really attuned to your needs that would be a modifying
effect," Jennifer Jenkins told Reuters Health.
What children learn from their siblings when they are growing up has a
considerable influence on their social and emotional development as adults, an expert
on family relationships has said.
According to Prof Laurie Kramer of the University of Illinois, while a parent’s
influence on a child’s development is obviously important, the influence of a sibling
should not be under-estimated.
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“What we learn from our parents may overlap quite a bit with what we learn
from our siblings, but there may be some areas in which they differ significantly,”
Prof Kramer said.
She pointed out that while parents are better at teaching the social niceties of
more formal settings, such as how to act in public or at the dinner table, siblings are
better role models when it comes to informal behavior, such as how to act at school or
how to act around friends. These constitute the bulk of a child’s everyday
experiences. [13]
MEZZO LEVEL
Child and religious organizations
Children usually acquire the religious views of their parents, although they may
also be influenced by others they communicate with such as peers and teachers.
Aspects of this subject include rites of passage, education and child psychology, as
well as discussion of the moral issue of religious education of children. Parental,
couple, and familial religion are linked with youngsters’ pro-social behavior.
However, religion can undermine child development when it is a source of conflict
among families. The investigation concludes with a specification of implications and
directions for future research.
MACRO LEVEL
Community
In communities, both formal and informal elements are at work, and their
combination will depend on the particular context. In places where the government
system is decentralised, the presence of formal system elements such as special police
forces or services may be greater. [67] In other contexts, the informal elements may
be dominant. For example, in many communities in Sierra Leone, there are informal
child Protection committees, youth clubs or other Structures that perform prevention
and Protection functions. This level includes most Civil society organisations as well
as businesses. Individual community members also have important roles to play in the
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protection of children, whether as neighbors, mentors, friends or other positive
figures. Community members and families together also have a critical role in
building assets which will help children to thrive while also preventing abuse, neglect
and exploitation.
EXO-LEVEL
Cultural values
Culture shapes experiences and influences children’s development. Through
their culture children learn which behaviors and temperaments are preferred or
discouraged. For example, independence and self-esteem are valued in some cultures;
interdependence and the strong connections are preferred in other cultures. One
universal trend is that children who are pro-social and non-aggressive are liked by
other children.
Early childhood professionals should be trained to understand and bridge the
cultural orientation of children in their classrooms. Intervention programs should
always be flexible enough to adjust depending on culture and to help families to
incorporate services smoothly into their life.
We all need to understand how culture shapes child development in order to
improve the lives of children in a way that respects their cultural backgrounds.
Social condition
For decades, the medical community has understood the important influence an
individual’s environment has on their health. This has led to many health promotion
interventions which focus on improving health by improving the environment of a
community. This has also led to increasing calls for future health promotion efforts to
move beyond attempting to change individual behaviors and instead focus on creating
a healthy environment, which are conducive to health.
An individual’s social environment, including the social relationships an
individual makes within it, can also have a profound impact on the quality of
parenting, which in turn affects a child’s health development and future achievements.
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57M Inclusive social environment which provide support to parents have been shown
to enhance parents’ capacity to care for their children and in doing so promote better
child health and development. They have also been shown to have a positive effect on
the family system, and families who are well connected to networks of supportive
individuals are better able to cope with factors which may negatively influence their
health.
State
The state is a critical actor, given its role and responsibility in the
implementation of children’s rights to protection, which are articulated in the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child. The majority of formal components of the
child protection system are put in place and implemented by the government
authorities at different levels; however, the state is strongly affected by informal
elements of the child protection system. This level includes, People hired by the state
who have roles to play in the protection of children, including teachers, health
workers, Police officers and others.
International structures and actors
International structures and actors play a significant role by supporting the
implementation of child rights to protection and holding states accountable as dutybearers pursuant to the CRC and other international rights instruments. They often do
this through establishing mechanisms for reporting, review, monitoring and
evaluation, complaints, and limited redress. The international entities also contribute
to the development of research, data analysis, information and database management,
and advocacy campaigns. Some entities, such as UN entities, act as lead agencies to
coordinate efficient and effective responses in emergencies. International childfocused non-governmental organizations are also actors in the child protection
system. They often are actor in the informal elements of the system, as they advocate
and build capacity of children, family members, partners and government to fulfil
their responsibility in protecting children. In some rare cases, NGOs might be part of
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the formal elements of the child protection system if they are providing services under
the formal mandate of the government. International Non- governmental
organizations must be careful not to contribute to the creation of parallel, competing,
non-sustainable structures in child protection systems. This is prevented through
ensuring that their work is sufficiently rooted in collaboration with the government
and communities.
The role of the family in the social protection of the child.
In response to the problem of child abuse and neglect there have been a series
of community-based preventive measures. After examining the potential roles of
parents in child abuse preventive programs, we might want to recommend certain
measures. These measures include: the necessity of developing a strong partnership
between parents and community; the use of gender-neutral terms as “abusive parents”
which serve to disguise who actually abuses and who is held responsible for
protecting the child; the reaction to what is perceived as intervention in the family.
These issues are very important to consider because trust is necessary between the
family and societal institutions.
The child as an individual has an interdependence with the state. Their issues
are not limited only to harm and abuse but rather their overall development and
wellbeing. This demonstrated in the policies of many countries in the world in
protecting the interests of the child. [24]
We shall examine the family as a solution to the challenges of child abuse. The
family as we know is the blood of every human society. The family always accepts its
members for who they are, and will do anything to make sure its member are happy.
Also love them unconditionally at all times. The life of every child starts in the family
a place where love never ends.
Education and socialization- The family is also the means of support of new
life, the natural refuge for children, and the first and foremost school to teach the
values necessary for the well-being of children and society. The family truly is our
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link to the past and bridge to the future. [30] The family is the only place where
children learn a lot after school. In school, teachers taught children about the subjects
which will help them to find good jobs in future. In the home, family teaches children
about habits, rules, values, tradition, disciplines which not only help them to find job
but also help them live a perfect life in future. Early education starts with the family
when babies are born, they see they see their parents and there after they spent most
of the time with their families until they go to school. The first 3 to 4 years is really
important for babies to get to know good habits from their parents, brothers or sisters.
This period babies brain triple in weight and they can learn habits and discipline from
their families only.
Protection of vulnerable members - the family stands with its members in any
situation. This is one of the biggest advantages of the family any of us never realize.
The families protect and defend its members from external influence. The family has
the responsibility to give psychological support to its members, especially when they
are faced with critical situations. In addition to childcare support, families typically
provide protective care and support for their disabled, frail, ill, and other vulnerable
members who cannot care for themselves. The the family is a social arrangement in
which an individual has extensive reciprocal duties, obligations and responsibilities to
his relations outside his nuclear family. [49] The child may have lots of friends and
play mates but parents, brothers and sisters are the only ones who will stay with the
child in hard and difficult times. For instance, if a child has a school function,
competition in school the family may decide to support the child by boosting the
child’s moral, this can serve as a motivation, driving away all sort of fear and giving
the child the confidence him/her needs to perform very well. Also, if the child is sick
and admitted in the hospital family members will visit the particular child
encouraging him/her that everything will be fine. This may serve as a psychological
boost to help the child recover fast from the illness.
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Domestic economy- also, very significant is the role of the family in developing
the human capital of its members. In most cases senior members of the family system
may pass on creative skills the acquired from their predecessors to the future
generation. Empowering young boys and girls is a form of security against any form
of abuse. The more the child is kept independent and confident the more he/she will
be able to resist any form of intimidation and bully. This fact is enfercised in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states “motherhood and childhood are
entitled to special care and assistance,” [64] and, as stated in the Declaration of the
Rights of the Child, every child should, “wherever possible, grow up in the care and
under the responsibility of his [or her] parents.” [17] Most teenage girls in Sierra
Leone are sexually violated because of material things. This can only be avoided in
situations where the family was able to empower the girl child to be able to provide
her needs for herself.
Leisure and entertainment- this is another reason why the family is important in
the life of the child. The first source of entertainment for children is the family. It is
the responsibility of parents to always keep their children happy. There is a saying “a
happy child is a healthy child”. It is common practice that most of the time one or
both parents are busy finding income for the family. In spite of this they are expected
to take time off from job so they get time with the children. This may include staying
at home as a family, playing games, singing and dancing, telling family stories or
family outings (site seeing or cinema). The family also encourages children when they
pass every advance stage. This is why the family is important in the child’s
development. It can also help to unite the family, making it a stable environment for
upbringing. Significantly if the child is happy at home it will positively reflect on
their academic progress and then can be able to fully realize his potential.
Social selection- class system is evident in Sierra Leone’s family system.
“Matchmaking” is one of the common practices that portray that. Most of the ethnic
groups in the country fix-up marriages for their sons and daughters to people that they
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believe they share the same values. All the major ethnic groups regard children as
precious gift from God and that whoever is blessed with one or more must take good
care of them. This justifies the common practice of social selection in settlement,
marriage unions, and social clubs/organizations. The people believe that they will
better be able to interact with people of their kind.
Apart from the fantastic job that the family system in Sierra Leone is playing in
preventing child abuse, some families have deliberately refused to corporate with
government to provide social security for their children. This is more common in
single parent families and it has been a major challenge for policy makers. This
signifies that the same person has the responsibility of playing both roles. The
following are some of the challenges:
Sexual life regulation- it is a tradition in Sierra Leone for the family to regulate
the sexual activities of its members, especially the teenagers. This is not always the
case with single parent families. These families are mostly dysfunctional and unstable
as compared to normal families. It is no secret that raising a child needs proper
attention, constant monitoring, care, discipline and so on. In the case of a single parent
family this will be difficult to achieve. Overwhelmed with their enormous
responsibilities single parents mostly don’t get time to properly monitor the activities
of their children or be there for them when they need somebody to talk to for guidance
and counselling. These children are always vulnerable to sexual harassment by older
men and other forms of abuses.
Economic function- it is the responsibility of the family to provide economic
support for its members. Deliberate refusal by parents to provide economic support
for their child is considered as an abuse of the particular child’s right. Under the 1991
constitution of the republic of Sierra Leone all children are entitle to physical and
economic security by their parents. Parents are expected to work in tandem with the
government in providing economic security form their children. This is not the case in
all families; some parents deliberately refuse to save enough for their children. They
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deprive the children from enjoying basic facilities. Depriving these children from
those facilities not only directly abuse their right but make them vulnerable to external
abuse.
Sometimes even in their families children feel like strangers, when they are
given the following unfear treatments; blamed for all family problems, blamed for
things over which child had no control, parent didn't set alarm clock and gets fired;
blamed for all problems, witness verbal or physical abuse of loved ones, brutality or
torture and other forms psychological abuse.
A perfect family in any civilized society should be a great example of the whole
society. Father, mother, children all of them have the responsibility of working
towards building a perfect family. If anyone of them fails, then whole family suffers.
Each and every member (father, mother, and children) in the case of a nuclear family
is expected to play his or her role in a positive way.
An ideal society is not only built by government alone but also, each and every
family member. This brings us again to the ancient wisdom that the world cannot be
put in order without first putting in order the family. [36] So each family is the
principal key to societal development. This is why the family is important in
protecting the child from abuse. The role of the family is also vital in creating a
peaceful environment for the child to develop into a healthy adult. It is important that
the family work in tandem with other institutions in making the world a better place
for children to live.
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CONCLUSION
To summarize, everything it should be noted that there is high level of child
sexual abuse (especially female genital mutilation) in Sierra Leone. The practice of
illegal method of upbringing children has resulted to the aggressive response reaction
of children and leads them to offences. It is believed to be the contributing factor of
homelessness, deviant behavior, runaways; it also hinders the chances of positive
values, norms, and social roles played by children and youth in the society.
The most common types of child abuses identified in both countries (Sierra
Leone and Russia) are physical, psychological, sexual abuse and neglect. It has
coursed negative effects in both societies. This work also attempted to use theories as
yard sticks to identify the root causes of child abuse and neglect.
However, despite
the intervention
of
government, non-governmental
organizations, religious groups, the civil society, child abuse has still remained to be a
major challenge in Sierra Leone. More especially now that traditional activities are
influencing the lives and living patterns of Sierra Leoneans. As far as overcoming the
challenge of child abuse and neglect is concern Sierra Leone has a lot to learn from
Russia. The organizational structure of agencies and department working on child
abuse and the determination of the Russian people to participate in eradication of
child abuse from their society are the two most important characteristics that Sierra
Leone need to copy.
Recommendations
The following are series of recommended strategies that aim to address some of
the immediate challenges of child abuse and neglect. They aim at the creation of
efficient and effective child protection and welfare system in Sierra Leone. The
recommendations are categorized into two parts. The first part outline preventive
measures and the second part focused on the structural and institutional arrangements.
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Stakeholders (government, nongovernmental organizations, and civil society)
are expected to study the following recommendations and endeavor to implement
them in other to provide social security for all children regardless of tribe, creed, or
region.
Preventive Strategies by government
The government of Sierra Leone through the inline ministries, agencies and
departments with the support of NGOs (international and local, working on child
rights protection) must try to implement the following strategies:
They should strengthen economic support to families. They may be realized by
strengthening the financial security of families by formulating family-friendly work
policies for working parents.
Work towards changing the social norms of people (especially parents, teachers
and care givers) to support parents and positive parenting. To achieve this there must
be public engagement and education campaigns, also, the formulation of legislations
to prohibit or reduce corporal punishment.
Government together with stakeholders must provide quality care and
education early in life. This can be achieved by the provision of preschool enrichment
with family engagement. They can also, improve quality of child care through
licensing and accreditation
They must endeavor to enhance parenting skills to in other to promote healthy
child development. This can be realized through the practice of early childhood home
visitation. Improving parenting skills and family relationship approach is also vital in
achieving healthy child development.
Government through the authorities responsible must vibrant and ready to
intervene to lesson harm and prevent future risk. This can be realized by enhancing
primary care, introducing behavioral parent training programs, treatment of lessen
harms of abuse and neglect exposure, and treatment to prevent problem behavior and
later involvement in violence.
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A comprehensive exercise should be undertaken to identify a long-term
sustainable vision for a functioning system for child protection, located within a
broader strategy of social welfare. This program must be guided by international best
practice but founded upon the positive customs and practices of Sierra Leone to
ensure a meaningful system.
The government of Sierra Leone must develop a clear strategy for addressing
the social norms and behavior that support child vulnerability, especially abuse and
neglect in the home environment.
Structural and Institutional Arrangements
Government must establish a National Commission for children in other to
ensure broader oversight, decision-making and monitoring for the protection of
children. This commission must have offices all over the country to enhance the
effectiveness and efficiency of its programs.
The government of Sierra Leone must develop a more formalized and regulated
role for the new district councils, including their own child protection committee:
these councils should be very vibrant and they will serve as bridge between various
organizations (government and non-governmental organizations) and the people.
Develop long-term care and protection services for children and families that
will be independent from the law enforcement role of the Family Support Unit (FSU)
and courts provisions and also, empowering the Social Development Officers (SDW)
to provide appropriate follow up children and families (CDC, 2016).
The role of the NGOs should be clearly defined (in the context of helping to
protect children) in providing children and partnering with government agencies and
the civil society in the fight against child abuse.
Technological prevention
Adults (parents/guardians) can take simple steps to protect your child from
exploitation and child abuse, as well as prevent child abuse in your neighborhood or
community. The goal is to provide safe, stable, nurturing relationships for children.
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For example, offer your child love and attention. Nurture your child, listen and be
involved in his or her life to develop trust and good communication. Encourage your
child to tell you if there's a problem. A supportive family environment and social
networks can foster your child's self-esteem and sense of self-worth.
Don't respond in anger. If you feel overwhelmed or out of control, take a break.
Don't take out your anger on your child. Talk with your doctor or therapist about ways
you can learn to cope with stress and better interact with your child.
Think supervision. Parents should not leave a young child home alone. In
public, keep a close eye on your child. Volunteer at school and for activities to get to
know the adults who spend time with your child. When old enough to go out without
supervision, encourage your child to stay away from strangers and to hang out with
friends rather than be alone and to tell you where he or she is at all times. Find out
who's supervising your child for example, at a sleepover. It is important for parents
know their child's caregivers. Parents should make irregular, but frequent,
unannounced visits to observe what's happening. And not allow substitutes for their
usual child care provider if you don't know the substitute.
Parents or guardians should emphasize when to say no. they must make sure
their child understands that he or she doesn't have to do anything that seems scary or
uncomfortable. Encourage your child to leave a threatening or frightening situation
immediately and seek help from a trusted adult. If something happens, encourage your
child to talk to you or another trusted adult about the episode. Assure your child that
it's good to talk and that he or she won't get in trouble.
Teach your child how to stay safe online. Put the computer in a common area of
your home, not the child's bedroom. Use the parental controls to restrict the types of
websites your child can visit, and check your child's privacy settings on social
networking sites. Consider it a red flag if your child is secretive about online
activities. Cover ground rules, such as not sharing personal information; not
responding to inappropriate, hurtful or frightening messages; and not arranging to
82
meet an online contact in person without your permission. Tell your child to let you
know if an unknown person makes contact through a social networking site. Reach
out and meet the families in your neighborhood, including parents and children.
Consider joining a parent support group so you have an appropriate place to vent your
frustrations. Develop a network of supportive family and friends (CDC, 2016).
An effective national child protection system recognizes that the state has the
ultimate responsibilities and human rights obligations towards children. Building and
strengthening child protection systems that are based on children’s rights, measures to
protect all children will be holistic, inclusive, sustainable and well-coordinated. In
essence, rights-based systems will lead to better protection for children.
A national child protection system consists of; laws and policies that protect
children from abuse, neglect, exploitation, and violence; a central government
mechanism for child protection which brings together central government
departments, different provinces, central and local levels of government and civil
society and mechanisms that bring perpetrators to justice. It also needs effective
regulation and monitoring at all levels, for example in childcare institutions and
schools and a committed workforce with relevant competencies and mandates.
In addition, a functioning child protection system should provide child-friendly
services at all levels and be informed by children’s views and experiences. It
strengthens families in the care and protection of their children. The services are
regulated by quality standards and delivered by the government or accredited social
agencies.
Save the Children recognizes that most countries in the world have a long way
to go before reaching this level and we therefore work to find strategic entry points
for advocacy and capacity building in each country. These strategies range from a
focus on individuals, families and relationship, to broader community and societal
change. These strategies are needed to better address the interplay between individualfamily behavior and broader neighborhood, community and cultural contexts.
83
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APPENDIXES
92
Appendix 1
Figure 5: Categories of Violence in Moyamba, disaggregated by gender
Figure 6: Categories of violence in Kono disaggregated by gender
CATEGORIES OF VIOLENCE
CATEGORIES OF VIOLENCE
93
Appendix 2
Figure 7: Categories of violence in Kambia disaggregated by gender
Figure 8: Categories of violence Western Area disaggregated by gender
CATEGORIES OF VIOLENCE
CATEGORIES OF VIOLENCE
94
Appendix 3
Figure 9: Categories of violence in Port Loko disaggregated by gender
Figure 10: Categories of violence in Bombali and Tonkolili disaggregated by gender
CATEGORIES OF VIOLENCE
CATEGORIES OF VIOLENCE
95
Appendix 4
Figure 11: Categories of violence in Bo disaggregated by gender
Figure 12: Categories of violence in Pujehun disaggregated by gender
CATEGORIES OF VIOLENCE
CATEGORIES OF VIOLENCE
96
Appendix 5
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
TABLES
Table1: Number of conversations by sex, age, and region
Table 2: Respondents by Gender
Table 3: respondents by Age
Table 4: Employment status
Table 5: Gender most likely to abuse a child
Table 6: Category most likely to abuse a child
Table 7: Identifying inappropriate behavior
97
Appendix 6
FIGURES
Figure 1: Types of child abuse
Figure 2: Sierra Leone child protection indicator
Figure 3: Theories of child abuse prevention
Figure 4: Violence categories by region
Figure 5: Categories of Violence in Moyamba, disaggregated by gender
Figure 6: Categories of violence in Kono disaggregated by gender
Figure 7: Categories of violence in Kambia disaggregated by gender
Figure 8: Categories of violence Western Area disaggregated by gender
Figure 9: Categories of violence in Port Loko disaggregated by gender
Figure 10: Categories of violence in Bombali and Tonkolili disaggregated by gender
Figure 11: Categories of violence in Bo disaggregated by gender
Figure 12: Categories of violence in Pujehun disaggregated by gender
Figure 13: Responses by gender
Figure 14: Responses by age bracket
Figure 15: Responses by employment status
Figure 16: Gender most likely to abuse a child
Figure 17: Individuals most likely to abuse children
Figure 18: Aggregated results of individuals most likely to abuse children
98
Figure 19: Identifying inappropriate behavior towards children
Figure 20: Aggregated results of Identifying inappropriate behavior towards children
Figure 21: The Eco-system of child protection system
99
Appendix 7
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CDC
Centre for Disease Control
CRA
Child Right Act
CHO
Community Health Officers
CSO
Civil Society Organizations
DHMT
District Health Medical Team
DPP
District Public Prosecution
FSU
Family Support Unit
ILO
International Labour Organization
PHU
Peripheral Health Units
PTSD
Post- traumatic Stress Disorder
MSWGCA
Ministry of Social Welfare Gender and Children's Affairs
NGO
Nongovernmental organizations
SDW
Social Development Officers
UN
United Nations
UNICEF
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
100
Appendix 8
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
Date…………………………………….
1. Name:…………………………………
2. Gender: Male
3. Age: 18 – 25
Female
26 – 35
36 – 45
46 +
4. Employment Status:
a) Work part time
b) Work full time
c) Self employed
d) Unemployed
e) Student
5. Men or women who do you believe are more likely to abuse children?
Men
Women
6. Which of the following individuals do you believe is the most likely to abuse a
child?
a) Parent/guardian
b) Other family member
c) Older person who the child knows
d) Older person who the child does not know
101
7. How confident are you that you could identify inappropriate behavior of an adult
towards a child that may suggest possible child abuse?
a) Very confident
b) Fairly confident
c) Not very confident
d) Not at all confident
8. If you suspect that, a child was at risk of abuse from an adult. What would you do
in the first instance?
a) Contact social service
b) Contact police
c) Speak to the child’s parents/guardians
d) Speak to another adult
e) Contact religious/community leaders
f) Others
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